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Which Wood You Choose? – Forest Landowners’ Selection of Trees for Planting Forests Can Have Different Outcomes

  • Article
  • Middle School
  • 1 Classroom Period
  • Carbon
  • Climate
  • Engineering and Forest Products
  • Wildlife
  • Carbon pricing
  • Carbon Sequestration
  • Climate Change
  • Conifers
  • Habitat
  • Hardwoods
  • Species of conservation concern
The cover for 'Which Wood You Choose' article. The main image is a photo of a canopy of bright green and yellow leafed tree branches.
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The scientists in this study were interested in exploring how the environmental conditions for wildlife species might change as landowners make decisions about replanting trees after harvesting. The scientists know that people tend to make decisions that maximize their profits. If landowners are paid to replant their land in something other than current species, the current habitat for wildlife may change.

 

Which Wood You Choose? – Forest Landowners’ Selection of Trees for Planting Forests Can Have Different Outcomes

Jump To

  • Meet the Scientists
  • Thinking About Science
  • Thinking About the Environment
  • Introduction
  • Methods
  • What Is the Difference Between Hardwood and Coniferous Trees?
  • Findings
  • Discussion

Meet the Scientists

Yukiko Hashida

Economist/Resource Economist | Environmental Economist

My favorite science experience is converting my backyard to a butterfly and bird-friendly sanctuary. I am not a fan of the lawn as it doesn’t support much biodiversity. I tend... Read Full Bio

John Withey

Landscape Ecologist | Ornithologist

One of my favorite science experiences was going out in the Panamanian rainforest to find and study tropical songbirds. I lived close to Soberania National Park (next to the Panama... Read Full Bio

David Lewis

Economist/Resource Economist | Environmental Economist

My interests in forests and conservation go back to my long-term love of being outdoors, which started when I was a kid and continues to this day. My favorite science... Read Full Bio

Tara Newman

Environmental Scientist

My favorite science experience was getting outside every day and exploring places that most people don’t get to go to learn about and help protect wildlife. This has included wading... Read Full Bio

Jeff Kline

Environmental Economist

My favorite experiences over the course of my career as a scientist have involved working with scientists from other disciplines. Since I was a kid playing in the woods behind... Read Full Bio

What Kind of Scientists Did This Research?

Environmental Scientist: A scientist who studies the physical and biological aspects of the environment .

Environmental and Natural Resource Economist: A scientist who studies the way environmental goods, services, and wealth are measured, produced, distributed, and used.

Landscape Ecologist: A scientist who studies the relationships between ecological processes in the environment and particular ecosystems.

Ornithologist (ȯr nə thä lə jist): A scientist who studies birds.

Thinking About Science

Environmental and natural resource economists study human decisions—why, when, and how people make decisions and how these decisions affect the environment around us. For example, some people might decide to move out of a flooded area after a devastating hurricane. Other people might decide to rebuild in the same spot. These decisions affect how the natural system evolves. If a built-up area that experiences a flood is allowed to return to its natural condition, the larger community may be better protected from future floods. People make decisions all the time that affect the environment, and all decisions have consequences. Can you think of one decision that people make that affects the environment? What is that decision and how is the environment affected?

 

Forests, the subject of this research study, provide an example
of an environment that can be affected by human decisions. To adapt to a changing climate, forest landowners may switch to planting more climate-resilient tree types. This may be a good thing for the forest landowners and the climate. However, some wildlife species that have adapted to today’s forest types might not be able to survive in this new type of forest. In this study, the scientists were interested in how forest landowner decisions might affect wildlife habitat in the future.

Thinking About the Environment

Wildlife and tree species thrive within a particular range of environmental conditions. Wildlife species are usually limited by the vegetation growing in an area, and the vegetation is usually limited by weather and climate conditions. These weather and climate conditions are the result of many factors, such as the coldest and hottest temperatures in the area, the duration of the temperatures, and the amount of rainfall and the season when it rains. Other conditions, such as the type of soil in an area, may also affect the range of a plant or wildlife species.

 

Forest ecosystems have evolved over time to support certain plant, tree, and wildlife species. As the climate changes, the type of forest ecosystem in an area may change. As the forest ecosystem changes, the wildlife living in that area may no longer be supported with suitable habitat.

 

In this study, the scientists were interested in learning about how forests might change as the climate changes and whether wildlife can live in the changing forests. The possible forest changes studied by the scientists, however, are not necessarily caused directly by climate change. Instead, these changes might happen because people are reacting to climate change. Climate change may cause people to make different decisions regarding the management of their forest land, and these different decisions may change the forest conditions and therefore the kind of wildlife habitat found there.

Introduction

Forest disturbance can happen by many means. Forest wildfires, destructive insects, and tree diseases, for example, may cause a lot of disturbance and change a forest ecosystem. You may have seen how wildfires have changed forests in California. Timber harvests, the result of human decisions, are also a type of forest disturbance. Climate change influences forest disturbance over time, as some species of trees may be more likely to die or are subject to more fires or insect outbreaks.

 

In the Pacific States of California, Oregon, and Washington (figure 1), private forest landowners are responsible for over 70 percent of forest change. This forest change is largely caused by landowner decisions to harvest timber. Landowners then manage the land through replanting trees or some other decision, and that land can continue to provide wildlife with habitat as the forest regrows. Timber harvests provide income for forest landowners and if they choose to replant trees, they will have income again in the future. Forest landowners, therefore, usually choose to plant trees that will be worth more when they are harvested.

 

A map of the United States on which the west coast states of Washington, Oregon, and California are highlighted in blue.
Figure 1. The Pacific Coast States are Washington, Oregon, and California. FIND Outdoors map by Leslie Shaw Design.

As you know, climate change is creating many challenges for the future. You probably also know that trees hold carbon as they grow. Planting tree species that hold more carbon, therefore, offers one way to address climate change. To encourage forest landowners to plant tree species that hold more carbon, a policy known as carbon pricing has been developed. Under this policy, forest landowners are paid to increase the amount of carbon held in their forest trees. This encourages landowners to plant tree species that hold more carbon than other tree species. If the new tree species are different than the tree species being harvested, the forest ecosystem will change over time. If the forest ecosystem changes, the habitat for some wildlife species will also change.

 

What Is the Difference Between Private and Public Forests?

In this study, the scientists were interested in decisions that might be made by private forest landowners . These privatelandowners are either citizens, organizations, companies, or large corporations who own and manage their own forests .Public forests, on the other hand, are forests managed on behalf of all citizens by a government . Public forests can bemanaged at the local, State, or Federal level. Public forests are managed in such a way as to balance a wide variety ofbenefits for citizens. Public forest examples include State forests and national forests.

If private landowners owning forests in Washington, Oregon, or California decide to replace the current tree species with a different species after harvesting, their private forests will change over time. As the forests change, the ecosystems will change. This change may have implications for the wildlife currently living in private Pacific forests. They may not thrive in the new ecosystems.

 

The scientists in this study were interested in exploring how the environmental conditions for wildlife species might change as landowners make decisions about replanting trees after harvesting.

 

Based on earlier science, the scientists knew that people tend to make decisions that maximize their profits. If landowners are paid to replant their land in something other than the current species, then the current habitat for wildlife may change. The scientists asked these questions:

    1. How might carbon pricing policy affect future privately owned forests of the three Pacific States?
    2. How might carbon pricing affect the breeding habitat of some wildlife species in those States?

 

Reflection Section

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Methods

First the scientists created a list of vertebrate species considered to have conservation concern status in the States of California, Oregon, and Washington. The scientists identified probable forest habitat for the species based on the following criteria:

    1. The species must be associated with a forest habitat (not grasslands, open lands, or wetlands).
    2. The species cannot be associated with all forest habitats.
    3. The species cannot be extremely limited in its range.
    4. The species cannot be limited to old-growth forest.

After the scientists had considered all the species of conservation concern, they identified 35 species that may occupy the current private forest habitat. The list of wildlife species included 8 amphibian species, 12 bird species, and 15 mammal species (figure 2).

 

Figure 2A: A Van Dyke’s salamander on yellow-green moss; the salamander is mainly a reddish orange. Figure 2B: A rufous hummingbird flies in the air; its feathers are mostly orange and brown. Figure 2C: A lodgepole chipmunk stops on a log; its tail is long and thin and sticks up in the air, and there are distinctive stripes on the chipmunk’s face.
Figure 2. Some of the vertebrate species identified as species of conservation concern in Pacific State forests are (A) the Van Dyke’s salamander, (B) the rufous hummingbird, and (C) the lodgepole chipmunk . Adobe Stock photos .

What Is a Species of Conservation Concern (SCC)?

A species of conservation concern (SCC) is a plant or animal for which the managing agency has concerns about its ability to remain on a particular landscape for a long time. An SCC is not a federally listed threatened, endangered, or candidate species under the Endangered Species Act. The SCC designation guides wildlife managers to pay close attention to the health and habitat of the species of concern. This attention is intended to prevent the SCC species from becoming federally listed as threatened or endangered. When a species becomes federally listed, it receives special protection based on United States laws.

The scientists then determined which forest types were potential breeding habitats for each of the 35 species, and they created maps that showed the location of the breeding habitat for each species.

 

The scientists needed to determine how forest types might change under different climate change and carbon pricing scenarios. The scientists knew that earlier research has shown that the Western States will become warmer and drier as the climate changes. In a warmer and drier climate, hardwoods tend to be healthier over time than coniferous trees.

What Is the Difference Between Hardwood and Coniferous Trees?

Hardwood trees are usually deciduous (di si jə wəs). Deciduous trees lose their leaves in the fall. Softwood trees are conifers (meaning that they have cones). Coniferous trees have needles rather than broad, flat leaves, and they keep their needles throughout the entire year. A common coniferous tree in the area studied by the scientists is the Douglas-fir.

Hardwood Trees and Leaves

USDA Forest Service photo.

A close up of a leaf changing color from green to red and clusters of winged seeds.

USDA Forest Service photo.

Softwood Trees and Needles

A forest of large, tall conifers.

USDA Forest Service photo.

A close up of a cluster of pine cones and needles.

Photo by Elisa Stamm

The scientists also needed to include forest landowner decisions in their analysis. They used earlier research they had done that compared climate variables, carbon pricing, and landowner replanting choices. Their past research explored the decisions forest landowners make depending on carbon and harvest prices, tree growth, and climate.

 

If a forest landowner decided to harvest, the next choice was whether to replant in one of six primary forest types. The value of a forest landowners’ land depends on what kind of trees are replanted. The scientists estimated how much money a forest landowner would receive under different tree planting options and three climate change and carbon pricing scenarios. They compared these options to a situation where the climate was not changing.

 

The scientists, therefore, considered how landowners would act in three possible situations:

    1. No climate change or carbon pricing
    2. Climate change only
    3. Climate change plus carbon pricing

 

The scientists considered two different options for climate change plus carbon pricing. The two options were paying a high price for carbon sequestration and a low price for sequestration. With carbon pricing, forest landowners would receive income twice: through carbon pricing and through timber sales when the timber is harvested.

 

For all these different situations, the scientists predicted what decisions forest landowners might make regarding harvesting and replanting their forests.

 

Following this analysis, the scientists calculated the future forest areas that would be suitable habitat for each of the 35 species of conservation concern. They did this calculation for smaller areas, called ecoregions, within the larger forest areas. By calculating suitable habitat by ecoregion, the scientists predicted whether each future ecoregion was a suitable habitat for each species of conservation concern.

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Findings

Forest landowners make decisions over decades, so any changes in the forest landscape will happen gradually. Currently, forest landowners living in warmer and drier western regions favor replanting other trees like hardwoods and ponderosa pine over Douglas-fir. With climate change, predicted warmer and drier conditions across the broader region will likely favor the decision to replant more forests in hardwoods over Douglas-fir trees and other coniferous trees (figure 3).

A pair of maps of Washington, Oregon, and California showing how much Douglas-fir and hardwood forests will change under future climate change.

Figure 3. These maps show the predicted percentage change in area occupied by (A) Douglas-fir forests and (B) hardwood forests under a changing climate. These maps show that Douglas-fir forests may be reduced by up to 16 percent and that hardwood forests may increase by up to 14 percent. FIND Outdoors maps by Liz Sisk and Leslie Shaw Design.

The scientists found that adding carbon pricing to the decision-making process accelerated the expansion of hardwood forests over Douglas-fir forests (figure 4). This expansion would likely be the result of landowner decisions based on lower productivity of Douglas-fir forests when compared with hardwood forests as the climate becomes warmer and drier.

 

A pair of maps of Washington, Oregon, and California showing how much Douglas-fir and hardwood forests will change under future climate change and with carbon pricing.

Figure 4. These maps show the predicted percentage change in the area occupied by (A) Douglas-fir forests and (B) hardwood forests under a changing climate and with carbon pricing options for forest landowners. These maps show that Douglas-fir forests may be reduced by up to 25 percent and that hardwood forests may increase by up to 21 percent. FIND Outdoors maps by Liz Sisk and Leslie Shaw Design.

If these predictions are accurate, forest landowner decisions to replant in hardwoods will result in many of the species of concern experiencing habitat reductions. When the scientists looked at the combination of species multiplied by each ecoregion under a changing climate, they projected a declining habitat for 171 combinations and an increasing habitat for 49 combinations. When the scientists added carbon pricing to the decision-making process, close to 180 combinations of species and ecoregions would experience declining habitat and about 40 combinations would experience an increase in habitat.

 

Species predicted to experience the greatest losses in habitat include four salamanders, three birds, three voles, and two mammals. None of these 12 species use hardwood forests as habitat. Included in this list is the Van Dyke’s salamander and the rufous hummingbird (see figure 2).

 

The scientists predicted that as carbon pricing increases, changes in wildlife habitat will also increase. This prediction illustrates a connection between policies intended to increase the sequestration of carbon and forest characteristics that contribute to biodiversity on private forests.

 

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A forested hill side with a trail. It is full of trees and a little foggy.

USDA Forest Service photo.

Discussion

Carbon pricing is widely used to encourage forest landowners to manage their forests for carbon sequestration. Carbon sequestration is an important process to help address climate change. This study shows that carbon pricing is also likely to have another impact on forest characteristics. If carbon pricing encourages landowners to replant their forests in a particular species, the new forests will favor wildlife who live in that forest habitat. Such replanting will not favor wildlife species who do not live in that forest habitat.

 

Carbon pricing can create a cost to society in the form of wildlife habitat loss. It can also, however, result in wildlife habitat gains. The findings of this research highlight the need to consider all consequences of forest policies, such as carbon pricing. The scientists recommend that the value of as many ecosystem services as possible be considered when implementing forest-related policies.

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Adapted from Hashida, Y.; Withey, J.; Lewis, D.J.; Newman, T.; Kline, J.D. 2020. Anticipating changes in wildlife habitat induced by private forest owners’ adaptation to climate change and carbon policy. PLOS ONE 15(4): e0230525. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0230525.

A graphic with a wood sign reading Which Wood You Choose in a field with trees and birds flying in the sky.

What's in a Name?

Before you read this article, the article’s title may have been a mystery to you. You might have thought the word “wood” was misused. You were correct! The word was misused. After you have read this article, however, you might have a better idea of why “would” was misused as “wood.” In your own words, explain how the title relates to the article.

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  • In this FACTivity, your class will consider the tradeoffs discussed in “Which Wood You Choose?” and work toward a solution. A tradeoff is any situation where making one choice to...

    FACTivity – Which Wood You Choose?

    • Activity
    • Middle School
    • 1 Classroom Period
    • Carbon
    • Engineering and Forest Products
    • Wildlife
    • Carbon pricing
    • Carbon Sequestration
    • Climate Change
    • Conifers
    • Forest Landowners
    • Habitat
    • Hardwoods
    • Pros and Cons
    • Species of conservation concern
    In this FACTivity, your class will consider the tradeoffs discussed in “Which Wood You Choose?” and work toward a solution. A tradeoff is any situation where making one choice to...
    Explore Activity Download FACTivity (PDF)
    Explore Activity Download FACTivity (PDF)

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    Which Wood You Choose? - Forest Landowners’ Selection of Trees for Planting Forests Can Have Different Outcomes
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Glossary

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  • accelerate

    (ik se lə rāt): To move faster.

  • biodiversity

    (bī ō dǝ vǝr sǝ tē ): Biological variety in an environment as indicated by numbers of different species of plants and animals.

  • breeding habitat

    (brē diŋ ha bə tat): Environment where an animal nests and reproduces as opposed to where it lives during the rest of the year.

  • criteria

    (krī tir ē ə): (singular: criterion) A standard on which a judgment or decision may be based.

  • ecosystem service

    (ē kō si stǝm sǝr vǝs): Any of the various benefits provided by plants, animals, and the communities they form.

  • implication

    (im plə kā shən): A logical relationship between two propositions in which if the first is true the second is true.

  • policy

    (pä lə sē): A course of action chosen in order to guide people in making decisions.

  • resilient

    (ri zil yənt): The quality of being able to recover from or adjust easily to change.

  • sanctuary

    (saŋ(k) chə wer ē): A place where someone or something is protected or given shelter.

  • scenario

    (sə ner ē ō): A sequence of events especially when imagined.

  • sequestration

    (se kwə strā shən): The act of setting apart, secluding, or withdrawing.

  • topography

    (tǝ päg rǝ fē): The shape and height and depth of the features of a place.

  • variable

    (ver ē ə bəl): (1) A factor, trait, or condition that can be changed or controlled; (2) a quantity that may assume any one of a set of values.

  • vertebrate

    (vərt ə brət or vərt ə brāt): Any of a large group of animals (such as mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fishes) that typically have a bony or cartilaginous backbone which replaces the notochord, a distinct head containing a brain which arises as an enlarged part of the nerve cord, and an internal usually bony skeleton and including some primitive forms (such as lampreys) in which the backbone is absent and the notochord persists throughout life.

  • Headshot of Yukiko Hashida

    Yukiko Hashida

    Economist/Resource Economist | Environmental Economist

    My favorite science experience is converting my backyard to a butterfly and bird-friendly sanctuary. I am not a fan of the lawn as it doesn’t support much biodiversity. I tend...
    View Profile
  • A headshot of John Withey in a forest wearing binoculars

    John Withey

    Landscape Ecologist | Ornithologist

    One of my favorite science experiences was going out in the Panamanian rainforest to find and study tropical songbirds. I lived close to Soberania National Park (next to the Panama...
    View Profile
  • Headshot of David Lewis outside in front of some trees

    David Lewis

    Economist/Resource Economist | Environmental Economist

    My interests in forests and conservation go back to my long-term love of being outdoors, which started when I was a kid and continues to this day. My favorite science...
    View Profile
  • Tara Newman holds a large frog outside.

    Tara Newman

    Environmental Scientist

    My favorite science experience was getting outside every day and exploring places that most people don’t get to go to learn about and help protect wildlife. This has included wading...
    View Profile
  • Jeff Kline paddles a canoe.

    Jeff Kline

    Environmental Economist

    My favorite experiences over the course of my career as a scientist have involved working with scientists from other disciplines. Since I was a kid playing in the woods behind...
    View Profile

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Social Studies Standards are educational guidelines outlining the essential knowledge, skills, and concepts students should learn in subjects such as history, geography, civics, and economics, aiming to provide a comprehensive understanding of societal structures, historical events, and global perspectives.
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    Introduces something new about the scientific process, such as a scientific habit of mind or procedures used in scientific studies.

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If you are a trained Project Learning Tree educator, you may use “Forest for the Trees” as an additional resource.

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    • Habitat
    • Rural Areas
    The scientists in this study were interested in studying how climate change may impact rural areas in the United States. Rural areas are expected to experience more negative impacts from...
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    Part Of

    Natural IQ Climate Change - Vol. 1 No. 1
  • The scientists in this study developed a process to help managers identify management priorities. As conditions change over time, the managers wanted to adapt their management priorities to fit the...

    At Your Service: Developing Models to Help Natural Resource Managers Make Better Decisions

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    • 1 Classroom Period
    • Water
    • Wilderness
    • Adaptive Management
    • Ecosystem
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    • Models
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    The scientists in this study developed a process to help managers identify management priorities. As conditions change over time, the managers wanted to adapt their management priorities to fit the...
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    Part Of

    Scientific Models in Adaptive Management - Vol. 17 No. 1
  • Over the past 40 years, Federal and State governments have provided financial incentives to private forest landowners. In this monograph, scientists wanted to know what kind of impact these programs...

    Show Me the Money – Vol. 1 No. 4

    • Monograph
    • Middle School
    • Agriculture
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    • Wilderness
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    • Private Land
    • Sample Size
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    • Sustainability
    Over the past 40 years, Federal and State governments have provided financial incentives to private forest landowners. In this monograph, scientists wanted to know what kind of impact these programs...
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    Explore Monograph Download Monograph (PDF)

Additional Resources

  • USDA Forest Service: The Benefits of Trees

    Learn more about the benefits of trees and explore Forest Service resources about trees.

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  • USDA Forest Service: Private Land

    Learn more about the forests that are owned and managed by private landowners. Explore Forest Service resources for private landowners.

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  • USDA Forest Service: Carbon

    Learn more about carbon, carbon’s role in the forest, carbon stewardship, and more.

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