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Wilderness Makes Cents! How Much Are People Willing To Pay for Wilderness?

One of the ways that social scientists determine how much benefit people receive from something is to find out how much they would be willing to pay for it. In this study, the scientists wanted to know how much money people would be willing to spend to receive recreation use benefits from wilderness. They also wanted to know how much money people would be willing to spend to receive passive use benefits from wilderness.

Wilderness Makes Cents! How Much Are People Willing To Pay for Wilderness?

Meet the Scientists

Michael Bowker

Social Scientist

John Bergstrom

Social Scientist

Jay Harvard

Research Scientist

Ken Cordell

Social Scientist

Don English

Social Scientist

John Loomis

Social Scientist

Thinking About Science

To discover new information, scientists must have one of two things. They either need new data, or they need a new way to examine existing data. Data are representations of the things that scientists want to understand. Most of the time, we think of data as numbers that represent measurements or counts of the things being studied. Data can also be words or pictures that represent the objects being studied. In this study, the scientists were interested in some of the benefits that people receive from wilderness. To understand those benefits, the scientists examined existing data in new ways. The data they used were numbers, and those numbers came from research that had been done by other scientists.

Thinking About the Environment

Wildernesses are places that are legally protected from human development. As areas that are not developed, people enjoy unique benefits from them. One type of benefit that people receive from wilderness is the chance to do things like hike, camp, and canoe in a totally natural area, away from things like roads, electricity, and buildings. This type of benefit is called a recreation use benefit by social scientists.

Another type of wilderness benefit identified by social scientists is called a passive use benefit. There are three types of passive use benefits. One of these is appreciation felt because of having the option to visit a wilderness in the future.

A second type of passive use benefit is appreciation of being able to pass along to their children the opportunity to use wilderness in the future. A third type of passive use benefit is just knowing that wilderness exists, even if the person never plans to visit them. In this study, the scientists considered both the recreation and the passive use benefits of wilderness.

Introduction

One of the ways that social scientists determine how much benefit people receive from something is to find out how much they would be willing to pay for it. For example, pretend that you are buying a new shirt. You are considering a number of shirts that cost between $15 and $35. The more money you spend on a shirt, the less you will have to spend on other things. If you are willing to spend more money, social scientists would say that you are indicating that the more expensive shirt will provide greater benefit than the one that you would spend less on. All of them will keep you covered, but the benefit might include being in style. If being covered is all that you care about, you might spend as little money as possible.

In this study, the scientists wanted to know how much money people would be willing to spend to receive recreation use benefits from wilderness. They also wanted to know how much money people would be willing to spend to receive passive use benefits from wilderness. If you need to refresh your memory on these types of benefits, reread “Thinking About the Environment.” The scientists wanted to estimate how much, across the entire United States, these benefits are worth to the American public.

Reflection Section

Method

The scientists decided to use the results of earlier research to determine the worth of wilderness benefits. You do the same thing when you search the Internet or use the library to gather information for a school project. The scientists were interested in finding information about something called net economic value. Net economic value is the amount that a person would be willing to pay for something beyond what they are required to pay for it (figure 1). For example, the net economic value of a stylish shirt would be the amount a person would be willing to pay for it above what they actually paid for it.

Two people looking out at mountains discussing how much they enjoy the view and how they would pay more to see it — **Figure 1**. Net economic value is what someone is willing to pay for something over what they actually paid . If the man on the right paid $50 to go on this recreation trip while in Alaska, what is the net economic value of the trip for him?

For recreation use benefits, net economic value is the amount a person would pay to participate in an activity beyond what they have to pay. For example, let’s say that a person has to pay for gas and food, and then they have to pay a fee to use an area for recreation (figure 2). They pay $20 a day for these expenses. If they would be willing to pay $30 a day, the net economic value of their trip would be $10 ($30-$20=$10). The same thing is true of passive use benefits.
Let’s say that a person pays $25 every year to help protect a wilderness by joining a group that helps to protect the area. If they would be willing to pay $50 a year to join the organization, what would be the net economic value of protecting the area for that one person? (Hint: Subtract the amount they pay from the amount that they would be willing to pay to join the organization.)

A sign in the woods that says Big Water Wilderness Over Night Canoe Stop Permis Required — **Figure 2**. People are required to purchase a special permit to use wilderness for recreation.

After looking at previous research, the scientists calculated an average net economic value. This average net economic value came from the different amounts that the scientists found in different studies. Figure 3 shows the average net economic values for wilderness recreation trips and for passive use benefits.

A table showing recreation use benefits per person cost vs passive use benefits cost — **Figure 3**. Average net economic value of a wilderness trip taken by one person and average net economic value of passive use benefits for one person over a year’s time.

Now that the scientists had estimated an average value for individuals, the next step was to estimate a value for the entire American public. This is how they determined the value of recreation use benefits: The scientists multiplied the average net economic value of a wilderness trip for one person by the number of wilderness recreation trips taken each year by everyone visiting wilderness. To find the number of trips taken each year, they examined earlier research.

Estimating the value of passive use benefits across the entire United States population was more difficult. Not every person places a passive use value on wilderness. If the scientists multiplied the average net economic value of passive use benefits by the total United States population, their number would not be accurate.

The scientists decided to use a number that represents a percentage of the number of households in the United States. The percentage they used was 50 percent. That was the percentage of households from which people agreed to answer questions about the benefits of wilderness. For example, if scientists had asked people in 1,000 households to answer a questionnaire, only 500 people, or 50 percent, agreed to answer. Although people have many reasons for not answering a questionnaire, one of the reasons might have been that the person did not feel any benefit from wilderness. In the United States, there are 110 million households. Therefore, the scientists multiplied the average passive use benefit (from figure 3) by 55 million.

The scientists then divided the two benefit totals by the total number of acres in wildernesses in the United States, which is 106.5 million acres. The resulting two figures represent the dollar amount of benefit per acre for the two types of benefits.

Reflection Section

Findings

The results of the scientists’ calculations are shown in figures 4 and 5.

Figure 4. Net economic value of wilderness recreation use benefits and passive use benefits for the entire United States.
Recreation Use Benefits	Passive Use Benefits
$465 million	$ 3.7 billion

Figure 5. Net economic value of wilderness recreation use benefits and passive use benefits for each acre of wilderness land in the United States.
Recreation Use Benefits	Passive Use Benefits
$4.39 per acre	$34.50 per acre

Reflection Section

Discussion

People do not always agree that wilderness provides benefits. Because wildernesses are owned by the public, it is important to understand whether the public receives benefits from wilderness. Many of the benefits that people receive from wilderness are hard to identify. It is harder still to place a value on those benefits. This study indicates that Americans benefit from using wilderness for recreation use. Even greater than this, Americans feel that they receive a benefit from wildernesses even if they do not use them for recreation. They also want to have wilderness available for future generations.

Reflection Section

From Harvard III, J . E ., Bowker, J . M ., Bergstrom, J . C ., Cordell, H . K ., English, D . B . K ., and Loomis, J . B . (2005) . The net economic value of wilderness . In: Cordell, H . Ken, Bergstrom, John C ., & Bowker, J .M . (2005) . The Multiple Values of Wilderness . State College, PA: Venture Publishing.

Part Of

Wilderness Benefits - Vol. 7 No. 1

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What Is a Natural Inquirer Journal?

Three Natural Inquirer journal covers with NI bee

A Natural Inquirer journal is a collection of 4-8 articles on a related science topic. Journals are written for a middle school audience, but they can also be adapted for both high school students and advanced upper elementary students. Some journals are particularly suited to high school students; you can find our grade level recommendations in the tags on the product page or by filtering journals by grade level.

Journals include:

Four to eight articles based on published, peer-reviewed research papers; the articles keep the research paper format (see more below) but are written in language students can understand.
A FACTivity for each article, which is an activity to complete after reading the article. The FACTivity helps reinforce major science concepts from the article. These activities are designed to be easy to implement, with few material requirements and options for adapting them for your audience or available resources. Some articles in a journal may have two FACTivities.
A short “Welcome to the journal” article about key background information and science concepts that unify the articles included in the journal
A glossary of new terms for each article and the introductory materials.
A list of related Natural Inquirer publications for each article as well as outside references.
Standards correlations, including Next Generation Science Standards, addressed in the articles and the FACTivities.

Journals may also include additional essays (called spotlights), other activities (like crossword puzzles or vocabulary challenges), and more.

A screenshot of the article resource tile for "A Flame Changer" showing the three different format option buttons.

Reading Modes

Journals are available in three different formats:

Hard copies can be ordered from the website and shipped, all free of charge.
PDF versions of the printed journal can be downloaded free on the website. The PDF version directly replicates the content and layout of the printed version. You can also download individual articles as pdfs.
The “Read Distraction Free” option allows the individual articles to open in their own window, without the rest of the website being visible. These articles can be found under the “Articles” tab. This version allows readers to scroll to particular sections of the article using the sidebar menu on the left side of the screen. This version also has interactive Reflection Sections and Number Crunches. Students can enter their answers, submit them, and then receive the correct answers to double-check their work. Submitted answers are not saved on the website and will disappear once the window is closed.

What's in a Natural Inquirer Article?

Here, we'll go into more detail about the parts of a Natural Inquirer article and give you some ideas about how they can be used.

Meet the Scientists
This section introduces the scientists (and others) who worked on the study. In their own words, they each share a memorable science experience, a favorite research project, or something they learned during the course of their education or research.

Use this section to:
- Introduce kids to the variety of people who work in science
- Introduce kids to the variety of scientific fields and give brief descriptions of science-related jobs
- Explore ways that people interact with science every day
Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) applications:
- Science and Engineering Practices
- Crosscutting Concepts: Influence of Science, Engineering, and Technology on Society and the Natural World
Note that specific standards for this particular journal are linked on this educator guide tab.

Other resources:

Many of the scientists and engineers featured in this section are also featured on our collector cards. Learn more about their work, how they got interested in their fields, and interesting projects they worked on. Cards can be printed as posters, too.
Thinking About Science
This section briefly describes a concept about science or scientific research. This overview can touch on topics like
- study type (longitudinal study, quantitative vs. qualitative data),
- behaviors of scientists (conducting literature reviews, collaborating with other specialists, replicating earlier studies),
- the practice of science (the scientific method, engineering design, data collection, randomization, controls and variables),
- or other aspects of science (bias, correlation vs. causation).
Use this section to:
- Reinforce steps in the scientific method and the process of science
- Encourage students to think about the practice of science and what it can and cannot tell us
- Consider the many types of scientific study and what information each type can provide
Next Generation Science Standards applications:
- Science and Engineering Practices
- Life Science Disciplinary Core Ideas (depending on topic)
- Most Crosscutting Concepts (depending on topic)
Note that specific standards for this particular journal are linked on this educator guide tab.

Other resources:

You can use key words to search for other or related scientific topics on our website (e.g. “longitudinal study,” “bias,” or “sampling”).
Thinking About the Environment
This section provides a brief overview of a topic or concept in environmental/life science. The topic or concept is directly related to the research study that follows. Examples of topics include the carbon cycle, the water cycle, habitat fragmentation, phenology, biodiversity, and ecosystem services.

Use this section to:
- Provide important background information to help students understand the research study
- Serve as a quick reference during reading or class instruction
- Connect the research article with other activities or media on the same topic
Next Generation Science Standards applications:
- Life Science and some Earth Science Disciplinary Core Ideas (depending on topic)
- Most Crosscutting Concepts (depending on topic)
Note that specific standards for this particular journal are linked on this educator guide tab.

Other resources:

You can use key words to search for more resources on life or earth science topics on our website (e.g. “habitat,” “carbon,” or “genetics”).
Introduction
This section begins the scientific article format. Much like the published, peer-reviewed study this article is based on, the introduction provides background information for the study – what is currently known and what remains unknown. The introduction culminates in the question(s) the study hopes to answer.

The introduction is also the first section with a Reflection Section. This section includes two or three questions to help kids reflect on what they’ve just learned in the Introduction. If they are using the online distraction-free reading mode, they can answer these questions directly on the website.

Use this section to:
- Review important background information that kids need to understand the study
- Connect the study to the concepts addressed in the Thinking About Science and Thinking About the Environment sections
- Understand research questions and hypotheses, including generating their own hypotheses given what they already know
Next Generation Science Standards applications:
- Life Science and some Earth Science Disciplinary Core Ideas (depending on topic)
- Most Crosscutting Concepts (depending on topic)
Note that specific standards for this particular journal are linked on this educator guide tab.

Other resources:

Use one of the guided reading lesson plans to help kids follow the format of a scientific paper.
Methods
This section is the nuts and bolts of the study design – the who, what, when, where, why, and how of the research. Contained within the Methods section are usually maps of the study location or the set-up of study plots, as well as details about what data was collected and how.

The Methods section also ends with a Reflection Section – two or three questions to help students think through what they just read. These questions are interactive on the distraction-free reading mode.

Use this section to:
- Show students how experiments and studies are designed and carried out
- Explore sampling methods and randomization
- Introduce various data collection tools (e.g. camera traps, surveys, insect collection tools, weather stations, etc.)
- Explain bias and how studies are designed to remove bias
- Help students gain experience with map reading
Next Generation Science Standards applications:
- Life Science and some Earth Science Disciplinary Core Ideas (depending on topic)
- Most Crosscutting Concepts (depending on topic)
Note that specific standards for this particular journal are linked on this educator guide tab.

Other resources:

Many Methods and Findings sections contain Number Crunches, which are simple math exercises designed to help students interact with the data from the study.
Findings
This section summarizes the data collected during the study. The Findings section usually includes data tables or graphs and highlights the significant data points from the study. This section often mentions statistical analysis or the use of computer programs to model or analyze the data, though these methods are only discussed generally.

The Findings section also ends with a Reflection Section – two or three questions to help students think through what they just read. These questions are interactive on the distraction-free reading mode.

Use this section to:
- Have students practice reading and interpreting graphs and tables
- Compare results between variables and controls
- Explain the concept of statistical significance
- Discuss how no data or negative results still provide valuable information
Next Generation Science Standards applications:
- Life Science and some Earth Science Disciplinary Core Ideas (depending on topic)
- Most Crosscutting Concepts (depending on topic)
Note that specific standards for this particular journal are linked on this educator guide tab.

Other resources:

Search the website for “map” or “graph” to find activities where students can practice making and reading maps and graphs.
Discussion
This section concludes each article. In it, we summarize the main findings of the scientists’ study. Additionally, we present the scientists’ ideas about the limitations of their study, the big-picture impacts of their research, and the scientists’ plans for future study or action.

The Discussion section ends with a Reflection Section – two or three questions to help students think through what they just read, especially general take-aways from the study. These questions are interactive on the distraction-free reading mode.

Use this section to:
- Discuss what conclusions can and cannot be drawn from the available data
- Explain the difference between correlation and causation
- Explore study limitations and opportunities for further study
- Brainstorm ways the study findings could be applied to real-world situations
Next Generation Science Standards applications:
- Life Science and some Earth Science Disciplinary Core Ideas (depending on topic)
- Most Crosscutting Concepts (depending on topic)
Note that specific standards for this particular journal are linked on this educator guide tab.

Other resources:

Use the “Designing Your Own Study” resource page for videos of scientists discussing their own research studies. The page also includes educator resources to help students plan their own scientific studies.

Additional Resources on the Website

A screenshot of the product tabs for an NI monograph On the website, we pair each journal with a variety of other resources, as well. Use the tabs on the product page to browse through the following:

Related activities, including the FACTivity for each article
An “About” essay that gives some larger context for the research the scientists conducted or more information about the science topic from the journal
A glossary of all boldfaced terms from the journal
A “Scientists and Collaborators” page that lists the people involved in the studies in the journal; click on a researcher to reach their bio page and see what other articles they might be featured in
A “Related Content” page that lists both Natural Inquirer resources about similar topics and also outside reference materials

Article Selection and Review

Natural Inquirer partners with the USDA Forest Service, so we source research studies by Forest Service scientists that have been peer-reviewed and published in reputable journals. Some of our articles have also been created in collaboration with scientists from other Federal agencies, such as U.S. Geological Survey and the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, universities, and other non-profits.

All journal articles are reviewed by scientists who conducted the original research study to verify scientific accuracy. Journals are also reviewed by student editorial review boards of middle or high school students before publication. Additionally, all journals are reviewed by the Forest Service and the U.S. Department of Agriculture before publication.

A screenshot of the citation for "Lights, Camera, Tracks" Every journal article includes a citation of its source study. Many educators pair the original research paper with our article to help more advanced students learn how to read formal research papers. The journal article then serves as adapted primary literature, bridging the two articles.

Lessons

This five-day lesson plan can be used in whole or in part to accompany the Wilderness Benefits edition of Natural Inquirer. Students will brainstorm and then research features of wilderness...
Lesson Plan – Wilderness Benefits
This five-day lesson plan can be used in whole or in part to accompany the Wilderness Benefits edition of Natural Inquirer. Students will brainstorm and then research features of wilderness...
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- Download Lesson Plan (PDF)
- Explore Lesson Plan
- Download Lesson Plan (PDF)
Part Of

Wilderness Benefits - Vol. 7 No. 1
Students learn how to note important parts of a text by highlighting sentences that help them answer the Reflection Section questions. This lesson plan can be used with any Natural...
Lesson Plan – Highlighter
Students learn how to note important parts of a text by highlighting sentences that help them answer the Reflection Section questions. This lesson plan can be used with any Natural...
- Explore Lesson Plan
- Download Lesson Plan (PDF)
- Explore Lesson Plan
- Download Lesson Plan (PDF)
Students work together to answer questions about an article generated by rolling the question cube. This lesson plan can be used with any Natural Inquirer article.
Lesson Plan – Question Cube
Students work together to answer questions about an article generated by rolling the question cube. This lesson plan can be used with any Natural Inquirer article.
- Explore Lesson Plan
- Download Lesson Plan (PDF)
- Explore Lesson Plan
- Download Lesson Plan (PDF)

Education Files

Project Learning Tree

If you are a Project Learning Tree trained educator, you may use “400 Acre Wood” as an additional resource.

John Bergstrom

Social Scientist

When I was a senior in high school, we took a biology field trip to a saltwater marsh on the coast of Virginia. As part of this trip, we walked...
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Michael Bowker

Social Scientist

One of the great joys I receive from being a scientist has been seeing both of my children pursue science degrees in college. My favorite science experience was working on...
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Ken Cordell

Social Scientist

“I like my work and working for the Forest Service very much. My work as a scientist involves studying how people relate to the natural world and what they like...
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Don English

Social Scientist

My favorite science experience was working with my son Peter to compare flight times and distances of five different paper airplane designs. We made 3 planes of each design and...
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Jay Harvard

Research Scientist

My favorite science experience was visiting and doing research in Iceland. You can see me here floating on a small iceberg in front of part of the Myrdalsjokull Glacier in...
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John Loomis

Social Scientist

I like being a scientist because I like solving puzzles about human behavior. I am interested in how much people value clean air and water, and protecting the environment for...
View Profile

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Journals & Monographs

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Readers

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FACTivity – Wilderness Makes Cents!

Who or What Am I? – Wilderness Makes Cents

Standards addressed in this Article:

What Is a Natural Inquirer Journal?

Reading Modes

What's in a Natural Inquirer Article?

Meet the Scientists

Thinking About Science

Thinking About the Environment

Introduction

Methods

Findings

Discussion

Additional Resources on the Website

Article Selection and Review

Lessons

Lesson Plan – Wilderness Benefits

Lesson Plan – Highlighter

Lesson Plan – Question Cube

Education Files

Project Learning Tree

Glossary

average

economic

legally

monetary

natural resource

passive

questionnaire

representation

social scientist

unique

John Bergstrom

Michael Bowker

Ken Cordell

Don English

Jay Harvard

John Loomis

Additional Resources

USDA Forest Service: Wilderness

Wilderness Connect