Please login to bookmark

The Golden Egg: Using Adaptive Management To Regulate Hiking Near Golden Eagle Nests in Denali National Park

Denali National Park in Alaska has one of the largest reported golden eagle nesting populations. Golden eagles are legally protected to help the population survive. Park managers were not sure how much hiking activities would affect nesting golden eagles in Denali National Park. They asked scientists to help them study this question.

The Golden Egg: Using Adaptive Management To Regulate Hiking Near Golden Eagle Nests in Denali National Park

Meet the Scientists

Julien Martin

Research Scientist

Carol McIntyre

Avian Bioecologist

Jim Nichols

Population Ecologist

What Kinds of Scientists Did This Research?

Avian bioecologist: This scientist studies the relationship of birds with each other and with the nonliving environment.
Population ecologist: This scientist studies the populations of different species and how each population interacts with its environment.
Research scientist: This scientist has expert knowledge of one or more sciences, especially a natural or physical science.

Thinking About Science

Sometimes in science no clear-cut answers exist for a problem. When no clear-cut answers are available, scientists need to find a way to solve their problem the best way they
can. Often scientists will design models of what they think is happening and then test these models. These models come as close to reality as possible. Models, however, give scientists a point of reference. This point of reference enables scientists to come up with possible answers to questions they are trying to answer. In this study, scientists made models of what might happen to golden eagles and their nests in areas with hiking activity. Specifically, the scientists used models to examine whether hiking activity would affect nesting success of golden eagles.

Thinking About the Environment

National parks attract many visitors throughout the year.
These visitors come to see the beauty of the parks and
take part in educational and recreational activities at the
parks (figure 1). The number of people who visit a park can have an effect on the park in many ways. The effects of recreational activities such as hiking and biking, for example, are a concern for some parks. Some effects of these types of activities may be easy to see. Land erosion from too much foot or bike traffic in an area is one example. Other consequences of people hiking and biking in a park may not be as easy to see. The stress caused to animals by hiking and biking and changes in animal behavior because of the presence of humans are two examples of this kind of effect.

A national park. There is a desert landscape with mountains in the background — **Figure 1**. National parks provide many opportunities to enjoy the outdoors. Photo courtesy of Tim Rains, National Park Service.

National parks have multiple purposes that are mandated by the Organic Act of 1916. Managers of national parks, therefore, need to protect the environment, plants, and animals. Managers must also ensure that people, including future generations, can enjoy their visits to the park.

What Is the Organic Act?

President Woodrow Wilson signed the Organic Act of 1916, which created the National Park Service. The National Park Service’s mission was clearly stated. The
National Park Service’s mission is to “…. conserve the scenery and the natural and historic objects and the wildlife therein and to provide for the enjoyment of the same in such manner and by such means as will leave them unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations.” To read the entire Organic Act, visit http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/anps/anps_1i.htm.

Introduction

Denali National Park in Alaska has one of the largest reported golden eagle nesting populations (figures 2a and 2b).

Golden eagle soaring through the sky — **Figure 2a**. Golden eagles are large birds of prey. Photo courtesy of Terry Sohl.

A golden eagle nest with a female and two chicks — **Figure 2b**. A golden eagle nest. Illustration by Stephanie Pfeiffer.

The golden eagle is one of North America’s largest birds of prey. These birds are very fast. They can dive from the air to catch their prey at speeds up to 150 miles per hour (241.4 kilometers per hour)! Golden eagles typically eat small animals such as rabbits, hares, and squirrels, but they have been known to attack larger prey. Pairs of golden eagles maintain large territories. Some of these territories can be up to 60 square miles in size. (Complete the number crunch to see how big this territory is.) Golden eagles are legally protected to help the population survive. Three Federal laws protect the golden eagle (figure 3).

Figure 3. Three laws protect the golden eagle.
Name of the law	How the law protects golden eagles
The Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act of 1962	This act prohibits anyone, without a permit issued by the U.S. Secretary of the Interior, from “taking” bald eagles, including their parts, nests, or eggs. The act provides criminal penalties for persons who “take, possess, sell, purchase, barter, offer to sell, purchase or barter, transport, export or import, at any time or any manner, any bald eagle ... [or any golden eagle], alive or dead, or any part, nest, or egg thereof.”
The Migratory Bird Treaty of 1918	This treaty established a Federal prohibition, unless permitted by regulations, to “pursue, hunt, take, capture, kill, attempt to take, capture or kill, possess, offer for sale, sell, offer to purchase, purchase, deliver for shipment, ship, cause to be shipped, deliver for transportation, transport, cause to be transported, carry, or cause to be carried by any means whatever, receive for shipment, transportation or carriage, or export, at any time, or in any manner, any migratory bird, included in the terms of this Convention ... for the protection of migratory birds ... or any part, nest, or egg of any such bird.” (16 United States Code 703)
The Lacey Act of 1900	This act protects both plants and wildlife by prohibiting trade of illegally transported, sold, or taken plants and wildlife.

Because the golden eagle population is fragile, park managers want to protect nesting eagles from disturbance caused by hikers in the park. Managers also want hikers to have a good experience in the park. Park managers were not sure how much hiking activities would affect nesting golden eagles in Denali National Park (figure 4a and 4b). They asked scientists to help them study this question.

A map of Alaska highlighting Denali National Park — **Figure 4a**. Denali National Park is
located in Alaska. Map by Lindsay Gnann.

A river running through Denali Nationals Park with mountanis in the background — **Figure 4b**. Denali National Park has a variety of rugged terrain. Photo courtesy of Tim
Rains, National Park Service.

The scientists and managers formed a team to develop a way to make decisions about hiking in Denali National Park. The managers identified management objectives for protecting eagles while providing opportunities for hikers. The scientists knew a great deal about golden eagles and developed models to help make the best decisions for eagles and hikers. The models the scientists developed looked at how eagles might respond to hiking.

The question the scientists and managers wanted to answer with this research was: How much does hiking need to be restricted to maintain golden eagle populations at desired levels?

Number Crunches

What Is Adaptive Management?

Have you ever heard that experience is the best teacher? This idea is the foundation of adaptive management. Adaptive management is a way for land managers to deal with an unknown future and to learn from trying new things. When land managers try something new, the outcome is evaluated. Based on the evaluation, the managers try another approach to improve their management. The process continues, with managers continuing to learn and adapt.

Scientists often help managers by designing and implementing the evaluation process. As you can see, scientists are involved in some parts of the adaptive management process. Land managers, however, treat the entire adaptive management process as an experiment.
What occurs when you do an experiment? Hopefully, you learn from your experience!

Number Crunch

Reflection Section

Methods

To identify the best way to manage hiking and still protect nesting golden eagles, the scientists used a formal decision making framework as part of adaptive management. First, the scientists had to gather information about the potential problem.

Since 1988, at least 93 eagle territory sites have been monitored in Denali. The scientists focused on 25 territories that they believed would be most affected by hiking. Golden eagle territories are areas of land in which eagles hunt and live. The scientists had to find out two main things. One thing they needed to know was the number of occupied and unoccupied eagle territories. The second thing they needed to know was the number of territories where golden eagles laid eggs and did not lay eggs (figure 5).

A golden eagle preparing to land on its nest at the top of a mountain — **Figure 5**. Golden eagle nests are large and often found in high places. In this photo, a golden eagle is preparing to land at its nest. Photo courtesy of Kent Miller, National Park Service.

After scientists had this information, they created three mathematical models to help them understand the effect of hiking on golden eagle nests. Each model made an assumption that the scientists could test (figure 6). This process is similar to making a hypothesis and testing it.

Figure 6. The models helped scientists study what may happen with different limits on hiking.
Model number	What the model assumed
1	Assumed no effect of hiking on whether the eagles lived and reproduced in the territory.
2	Assumed a moderate effect of hiking on whether the eagles lived and reproduced in the territory.
3	Assumed a large negative effect of hiking on whether the eagles lived and reproduced in the territory.

The scientists believed the population of golden eagles also depended on another important factor. This factor was the availability of snowshoe hares for food. Snowshoe hares are a primary prey for golden eagles in Denali (figure 7). The scientists believed that more eagles would nest when hares were plentiful. This information is important for understanding eagle nesting behavior.

A snowshoe hare in some snow — **Figure 7**. The snowshoe hare is adapted to cold climates. What is one adaptation you see? Photo courtesy of Jake Frank, National Park Service.

Scientists do not know the exact population size of snowshoe hares from year to year. This lack of information is a source of uncertainty when trying to develop models of eagle nesting. The scientists have a hare index to help them estimate the population size. This index does not give scientists exact numbers, but it does tell scientists when hares are in high and low phases of their population cycle.

The scientists used computer software to predict how different amounts of hiking would affect eagle nesting each year. Specifically, the scientists used the three models and the information they gathered about eagle reproduction and prey abundance to develop the software.

Adaptive Management in Your Life

Do you have bird boxes in your schoolyard? If you do not, pretend that you do. Your class has decided to use adaptive management to improve the situation for nesting birds. First, you must identify the problem and your objective. Let’s say that no bird has ever nested in any of the bird boxes. A lack of nesting birds is the problem. Your objective is to have three successful bird boxes. A successful bird box is one in which eggs are laid and hatched, and baby birds are able to leave the nest and fly away (figure 8).

A bird box in the woods — **Figure 8**. Bird boxes provide habitat for nesting birds. Photo by Babs McDonald.

Your class does research in the media center. You decide that the bird boxes are placed too close to the playground. You move the bird boxes away from the playground. After 2 weeks, you observe and record bird activity. One pair of adult birds is observed carrying nesting material to one of the nests. After evaluating your results, your class does more research. You discover that one of the unsuccessful bird box holes is too small. You cut a bigger hole, wait 2 more weeks, and observe and record any nesting activity. A pair of birds is observed at the second bird box. After evaluating the results of your bird-box management, your class does more research. You discover that nesting birds like to have an open space in the front of the bird box. The
last unsuccessful bird box faces a large bush.
What steps will you take next?

Reflection Section

Findings

Under model 2, closing some of the hiking areas had a small effect on golden eagle nesting (figure 9). Under model 3, however, closing fewer areas to hiking had a large negative effect on golden eagle nesting. The scientists found that more areas need to be closed to hiking as the number of unoccupied nests increased. The scientists also found that more areas need to be closed to hiking when fewer snowshoe hares were found in the area.

Hikers walking through a stream in Denali National Park with mountains in the background — **Figure 9**. Hikers in Denali National Park. Photo courtesy of the National Park Service.

You Are the Adaptive Manager!

In this article, you are learning about research and evaluation as a part of the adaptive management process. One important feature of adaptive management is its focus on an uncertain future. Scientists help managers by doing research. Scientists provide information that can be used to predict what might happen in the future. Pretend you are the land manager of the area being studied in this research. How would you use the findings of this study? What management action would you take? After taking the action, what would you ask the scientists to monitor?

Reflection Section

Discussion

The scientists said that it was important to consider the things in the models about which they were uncertain. This step is necessary before making any decisions about which
model is best to use. For example, accurately accounting for the number of snowshoe hares may change model outcomes. The scientists believe that even with the limitations of these models, using the models to make management decisions is better than waiting to make decisions until more data are available.

Reflection Section

Adapted from Martin, J.; Fackler, P.L.; Nichols, J.D.; Runge, M.C.; McIntyre, C.L.; Lubow, B.L.; McCluskie, M.C.; Schmutz, J.A. 2011. An adaptive-management framework for optimal control of hiking near golden eagle nests in Denali National Park. Conservation Biology. 25(2): 316–323

Part Of

Scientific Models in Adaptive Management - Vol. 17 No. 1

Explore Full Journal

ESS3.C-H1
ESS3.C-H2
ESS3.C-M1
ESS3.C-M2
ESS3.D-H1
ESS3.D-H2
ETS1.A-H1
ETS1.A-H2
ETS1.A-M1
ETS1.B-H1
ETS1.B-H2
ETS1.B-M1
ETS1.B-M2
ETS1.B-M3
ETS1.B-M4
ETS1.C-H1
ETS1.C-M1
ETS1.C-M2
LS1.B-M2
LS2.A-H1
LS2.A-M1
LS2.A-M3
LS2.A-M4
LS2.C-H1
LS2.C-H2
LS2.C-M1
LS2.C-M2
LS4.D-H2
LS4.D-M1

What Is a Natural Inquirer Journal?

Three Natural Inquirer journal covers with NI bee

A Natural Inquirer journal is a collection of 4-8 articles on a related science topic. Journals are written for a middle school audience, but they can also be adapted for both high school students and advanced upper elementary students. Some journals are particularly suited to high school students; you can find our grade level recommendations in the tags on the product page or by filtering journals by grade level.

Journals include:

Four to eight articles based on published, peer-reviewed research papers; the articles keep the research paper format (see more below) but are written in language students can understand.
A FACTivity for each article, which is an activity to complete after reading the article. The FACTivity helps reinforce major science concepts from the article. These activities are designed to be easy to implement, with few material requirements and options for adapting them for your audience or available resources. Some articles in a journal may have two FACTivities.
A short “Welcome to the journal” article about key background information and science concepts that unify the articles included in the journal
A glossary of new terms for each article and the introductory materials.
A list of related Natural Inquirer publications for each article as well as outside references.
Standards correlations, including Next Generation Science Standards, addressed in the articles and the FACTivities.

Journals may also include additional essays (called spotlights), other activities (like crossword puzzles or vocabulary challenges), and more.

A screenshot of the article resource tile for "A Flame Changer" showing the three different format option buttons.

Reading Modes

Journals are available in three different formats:

Hard copies can be ordered from the website and shipped, all free of charge.
PDF versions of the printed journal can be downloaded free on the website. The PDF version directly replicates the content and layout of the printed version. You can also download individual articles as pdfs.
The “Read Distraction Free” option allows the individual articles to open in their own window, without the rest of the website being visible. These articles can be found under the “Articles” tab. This version allows readers to scroll to particular sections of the article using the sidebar menu on the left side of the screen. This version also has interactive Reflection Sections and Number Crunches. Students can enter their answers, submit them, and then receive the correct answers to double-check their work. Submitted answers are not saved on the website and will disappear once the window is closed.

What's in a Natural Inquirer Article?

Here, we'll go into more detail about the parts of a Natural Inquirer article and give you some ideas about how they can be used.

Meet the Scientists
This section introduces the scientists (and others) who worked on the study. In their own words, they each share a memorable science experience, a favorite research project, or something they learned during the course of their education or research.

Use this section to:
- Introduce kids to the variety of people who work in science
- Introduce kids to the variety of scientific fields and give brief descriptions of science-related jobs
- Explore ways that people interact with science every day
Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) applications:
- Science and Engineering Practices
- Crosscutting Concepts: Influence of Science, Engineering, and Technology on Society and the Natural World
Note that specific standards for this particular monograph are linked on this educator guide tab.

Other resources:

Many of the scientists and engineers featured in this section are also featured on our collector cards. Learn more about their work, how they got interested in their fields, and interesting projects they worked on. Cards can be printed as posters, too.
Thinking About Science
This section briefly describes a concept about science or scientific research. This overview can touch on topics like
- study type (longitudinal study, quantitative vs. qualitative data),
- behaviors of scientists (conducting literature reviews, collaborating with other specialists, replicating earlier studies),
- the practice of science (the scientific method, engineering design, data collection, randomization, controls and variables),
- or other aspects of science (bias, correlation vs. causation).
Use this section to:
- Reinforce steps in the scientific method and the process of science
- Encourage students to think about the practice of science and what it can and cannot tell us
- Consider the many types of scientific study and what information each type can provide
Next Generation Science Standards applications:
- Science and Engineering Practices
- Life Science Disciplinary Core Ideas (depending on topic)
- Most Crosscutting Concepts (depending on topic)
Note that specific standards for this particular monograph are linked on this educator guide tab.

Other resources:

You can use key words to search for other or related scientific topics on our website (e.g. “longitudinal study,” “bias,” or “sampling”).
Thinking About the Environment
This section provides a brief overview of a topic or concept in environmental/life science. The topic or concept is directly related to the research study that follows. Examples of topics include the carbon cycle, the water cycle, habitat fragmentation, phenology, biodiversity, and ecosystem services.

Use this section to:
- Provide important background information to help students understand the research study
- Serve as a quick reference during reading or class instruction
- Connect the research article with other activities or media on the same topic
Next Generation Science Standards applications:
- Life Science and some Earth Science Disciplinary Core Ideas (depending on topic)
- Most Crosscutting Concepts (depending on topic)
Note that specific standards for this particular monograph are linked on this educator guide tab.

Other resources:

You can use key words to search for more resources on life or earth science topics on our website (e.g. “habitat,” “carbon,” or “genetics”).
Introduction
This section begins the scientific article format. Much like the published, peer-reviewed study this article is based on, the introduction provides background information for the study – what is currently known and what remains unknown. The introduction culminates in the question(s) the study hopes to answer.

The introduction is also the first section with a Reflection Section. This section includes two or three questions to help kids reflect on what they’ve just learned in the Introduction. If they are using the online distraction-free reading mode, they can answer these questions directly on the website.

Use this section to:
- Review important background information that kids need to understand the study
- Connect the study to the concepts addressed in the Thinking About Science and Thinking About the Environment sections
- Understand research questions and hypotheses, including generating their own hypotheses given what they already know
Next Generation Science Standards applications:
- Life Science and some Earth Science Disciplinary Core Ideas (depending on topic)
- Most Crosscutting Concepts (depending on topic)
Note that specific standards for this particular monograph are linked on this educator guide tab.

Other resources:

Use one of the guided reading lesson plans to help kids follow the format of a scientific paper.
Methods
This section is the nuts and bolts of the study design – the who, what, when, where, why, and how of the research. Contained within the Methods section are usually maps of the study location or the set-up of study plots, as well as details about what data was collected and how.

The Methods section also ends with a Reflection Section – two or three questions to help students think through what they just read. These questions are interactive on the distraction-free reading mode.

Use this section to:
- Show students how experiments and studies are designed and carried out
- Explore sampling methods and randomization
- Introduce various data collection tools (e.g. camera traps, surveys, insect collection tools, weather stations, etc.)
- Explain bias and how studies are designed to remove bias
- Help students gain experience with map reading
Next Generation Science Standards applications:
- Life Science and some Earth Science Disciplinary Core Ideas (depending on topic)
- Most Crosscutting Concepts (depending on topic)
Note that specific standards for this particular monograph are linked on this educator guide tab.

Other resources:

Many Methods and Findings sections contain Number Crunches, which are simple math exercises designed to help students interact with the data from the study.
Findings
This section summarizes the data collected during the study. The Findings section usually includes data tables or graphs and highlights the significant data points from the study. This section often mentions statistical analysis or the use of computer programs to model or analyze the data, though these methods are only discussed generally.

The Findings section also ends with a Reflection Section – two or three questions to help students think through what they just read. These questions are interactive on the distraction-free reading mode.

Use this section to:
- Have students practice reading and interpreting graphs and tables
- Compare results between variables and controls
- Explain the concept of statistical significance
- Discuss how no data or negative results still provide valuable information
Next Generation Science Standards applications:
- Life Science and some Earth Science Disciplinary Core Ideas (depending on topic)
- Most Crosscutting Concepts (depending on topic)
Note that specific standards for this particular monograph are linked on this educator guide tab.

Other resources:

Search the website for “map” or “graph” to find activities where students can practice making and reading maps and graphs.
Discussion
This section concludes each article. In it, we summarize the main findings of the scientists’ study. Additionally, we present the scientists’ ideas about the limitations of their study, the big-picture impacts of their research, and the scientists’ plans for future study or action.

The Discussion section ends with a Reflection Section – two or three questions to help students think through what they just read, especially general take-aways from the study. These questions are interactive on the distraction-free reading mode.

Use this section to:
- Discuss what conclusions can and cannot be drawn from the available data
- Explain the difference between correlation and causation
- Explore study limitations and opportunities for further study
- Brainstorm ways the study findings could be applied to real-world situations
Next Generation Science Standards applications:
- Life Science and some Earth Science Disciplinary Core Ideas (depending on topic)
- Most Crosscutting Concepts (depending on topic)
Note that specific standards for this particular monograph are linked on this educator guide tab.

Other resources:

Use the “Designing Your Own Study” resource page for videos of scientists discussing their own research studies. The page also includes educator resources to help students plan their own scientific studies.

Additional Resources on the Website

A screenshot of the product tabs for an NI monograph On the website, we pair each journal with a variety of other resources, as well. Use the tabs on the product page to browse through the following:

Related activities, including the FACTivity for each article
An “About” essay that gives some larger context for the research the scientists conducted or more information about the science topic from the journal
A glossary of all boldfaced terms from the journal
A “Scientists and Collaborators” page that lists the people involved in the studies in the journal; click on a researcher to reach their bio page and see what other articles they might be featured in
A “Related Content” page that lists both Natural Inquirer resources about similar topics and also outside reference materials

Article Selection and Review

Natural Inquirer partners with the USDA Forest Service, so we source research studies by Forest Service scientists that have been peer-reviewed and published in reputable journals. Some of our articles have also been created in collaboration with scientists from other Federal agencies, such as U.S. Geological Survey and the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, universities, and other non-profits.

All journal articles are reviewed by scientists who conducted the original research study to verify scientific accuracy. Journals are also reviewed by student editorial review boards of middle or high school students before publication. Additionally, all journals are reviewed by the Forest Service and the U.S. Department of Agriculture before publication.

A screenshot of the citation for "Lights, Camera, Tracks" Every journal article includes a citation of its source study. Many educators pair the original research paper with our article to help more advanced students learn how to read formal research papers. The journal article then serves as adapted primary literature, bridging the two articles.

Lessons

In this lesson, students will read and summarize four of the article’s sections. After the class reads the article and summarizes the sections, students should work in groups to create...
Lesson Plan – Model Construction
In this lesson, students will read and summarize four of the article’s sections. After the class reads the article and summarizes the sections, students should work in groups to create...
- Explore Lesson Plan
- Download Lesson Plan (PDF)
- Explore Lesson Plan
- Download Lesson Plan (PDF)
Part Of

Scientific Models in Adaptive Management - Vol. 17 No. 1
Students create a chart to write what they know before reading, what they think they will learn from the article, and then what they learned from the article. This lesson...
Lesson Plan – K-W-L
Students create a chart to write what they know before reading, what they think they will learn from the article, and then what they learned from the article. This lesson...
- Explore Lesson Plan
- Download Lesson Plan (PDF)
- Explore Lesson Plan
- Download Lesson Plan (PDF)
Focus student understanding of the main idea of a paragraph in each section of a Natural Inquirer article through a reading and note-taking process. This lesson plan can be used with any...
Lesson Plan – Paragraph by Paragraph
Focus student understanding of the main idea of a paragraph in each section of a Natural Inquirer article through a reading and note-taking process. This lesson plan can be used with any...
- Explore Lesson Plan
- Download Lesson Plan (PDF)
- Explore Lesson Plan
- Download Lesson Plan (PDF)

Education Files

Project Learning Tree

If you are a Project Learning Tree trained educator, you may use “A Forest of Many Uses” as an additional resource.

Download all resources - FREE!

Journals & Monographs

Collector Cards

Readers

Coloring and Activity Books

Please login to bookmark