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Owl-ch! – How a Changing Climate Might Affect Mexican Spotted Owls

  • Article
  • High School
  • Middle School
  • 1 Classroom Period
  • Active Forest Management
  • Wildlife
  • Adaptation
  • Air Temperature
  • Habitat
  • Metabolic Rate
  • Mexican Spotted Owl
  • Sacramento Mountains
  • Thermalneutral Zone
  • Water Loss
Cover for the 'Owl-ch' article.The main image is a photo of a pair of Mexican spotted owls sitting on a tree branch.
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Scientists investigated what might happen to Mexican spotted owls as the air temperature continues to rise in a changing climate. The scientist wanted to know how warmer air temperatures might affect an owl’s individual energy use and the amount of water evaporation an individual owl might experience in the changing conditions.

 

Owl-ch! – How a Changing Climate Might Affect Mexican Spotted Owls

Jump To

  • Meet the Scientists
  • Thinking About Science
  • Thinking About the Environment
  • Introduction
  • Methods
  • Findings
  • Discussion

Meet the Scientists

Joe Ganey

Wildlife Ecologist

In a long career in field ecology, I have had so many amazing moments that it is difficult to pick a single highlight. I vividly remember the first time I... Read Full Bio

James P. Ward

Wildlife Ecologist

My favorite science experience is difficult to choose—there are so many incredible moments I’ve enjoyed “in the field” studying wildlife and in particular, spotted owls. A clear and memorable high-point... Read Full Bio

Todd Rawlinson

Wildlife Biologist

While studying forest habitats, wildlife species, and wildland fires, we now understand that the greatest risk to most forest species is catastrophic, high-intensity wildfire. During my career, I have learned... Read Full Bio

Sean Kyle

Wildlife Biologist

I have been lucky to work with rodents, birds, bats, reptiles, amphibians, and all the way up to big game across 12 States. I earned a bachelor’s degree in zoology... Read Full Bio

Ryan Jonnes

Wildlife Biologist

The great outdoors has had a lasting impact on my life. The outdoors has shaped my hobbies, work, and family. I like to fish, hunt, camp, and hike. In 2005,... Read Full Bio

What Kinds of Scientists Did This Research?

Wildlife Biologist: This scientist studies the biology, behavior, and habitats of a variety of animal populations in the wild.

Wildlife Ecologist: This scientist studies the relationship of different kinds of wildlife with each other and with their living and nonliving environment.

Thinking About Science

Climate change offers new challenges for natural resource scientists. In particular, wildlife scientists are curious about how a changing climate may affect different wildlife species. As environmental conditions change, scientists discover new questions to answer. In this research, for example, scientists realized that the impact of a changing climate on a particular owl species is unknown.

 

This owl species is already threatened by other environmental conditions. These other environmental conditions include the loss of forest habitat from timber harvesting and wildfire. Climate change may impact the owl species in two ways. First, a changing climate may further change the forest where the owls live. Second, a changing climate may directly impact the physical well-being of individual owls.

 

Many of the questions natural resource scientists are asking today would not have been asked in the past. Changing conditions always present new scientific questions. Name one changing environmental condition of which you are aware and identify a research question that will address a possible impact of the changing condition.

Thinking About the Environment

A small bird with red-orange breast feathers looks at the camera as it stands in the snow. The birds’ feathers are fluffed out around it.
Figure 1. This bird is fluffing its feathers to stay warm . ©Chuck Murphy, http:// boywithcamera .com

All birds and mammals, including you, are endothermic (en də thər mik). Endothermic animals can, and must, maintain a somewhat constant body temperature regardless of the air temperature around them. In the summer, you perspire to cool off on hot days or when you are active in sports, for example. When the weather is cold, you may begin to shiver to stay warm. Humans also wear coats, hats, and gloves to stay warm.

 

Unfortunately, coats, hats, and gloves are not an option for birds when it gets cold. To stay warm, birds fluff their feathers (figure 1). Fluffing creates air spaces that provide a layer of warmth between the bird’s skin and the outside air. Birds may also crowd together on a limb to stay warm.

 

When the air temperature is high, some birds use a type of panting behavior to cool off. The bird opens its beak and flutters its neck muscles. This behavior also increases evaporation, causing greater water loss from the bird. Birds may also seek shaded environments to stay cool in hot weather.

 

In this research, the scientists were interested in learning if a species of owl might need to adapt its behavior to keep its body temperature stable in a changing climate.

Introduction

The Mexican spotted owl is one of the largest owls in North America (figure 2). Its wingspan is 45 inches, or just under 4 feet. The Mexican spotted owl is a subspecies of spotted owl that lives in the canyonlands and old-growth forests of Mexico and the southwestern United States. The owl lives in old-growth forests of white fir, Douglas- fir, and ponderosa pine. These trees have high, closed canopies that create cooler air temperatures due to deep shade. Mexican spotted owls nest in tree cavities, caves, and potholes in cliff ledges (figure 3).

 

Two Mexican spotted owls sit on a tree branch. They have whitish facial discs, black eyes, and brown and white feathers.

Figure 2. This pair of Mexican spotted owls sits on a tree branch. USDA Forest Service photo.

A red cliff ledge has pockets that have worn away. Two Mexican spotted owls sit in these pockets and ledges and look down towards the camera.
Figure 3. The Mexican spotted owl nests in a variety of places, including potholes in cliff ledges. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Amie Smith.

 

Many known Mexican spotted owl territories are on USDA Forest Service lands in Arizona and New Mexico (figure 4). These owls sometimes migrate and may move between 12 and 30 miles or to lower elevations.

 

A map of the southwestern portion of the United States and Mexico. The range of the Mexican spotted owl is marked in orange; the range covers portions of Utah, Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, and Mexico.
Figure 4. The Mexican spotted owls’ range includes Colorado, Utah, Arizona, and New Mexico as well as Mexico. FIND Outdoors map by Leslie Shaw Design.

 

A female owl lays between one and four eggs during early spring. She stays on the nest to care for the owlets while the male brings in food. The owls hunt at night. They eat small mammals, such as wood rats, mice, voles, rabbits, pocket gophers, and bats. They also eat birds, reptiles, and insects. About 60 percent of these owls’ water intake comes from eating their prey. Owlets stay in the nest for about 5 weeks. At 8 weeks, they can hold and eat prey on their own. The parents continue to feed the owlets until they become fully independent hunters at 4 to 5 months (figure 5). The survival rate of young Mexican spotted owls is low, and the owls’ lifespan is about 17 years. The Mexican spotted owl population contains a little more than 2,000 individuals now living within their United States range.

 

A juvenile and an adult Mexican spotted owl sit on a branch in a tree and look down towards the camera.
Figure 5. In this photo, an adult Mexican spotted owl sits on the right, and an owlet sits on the left. The owlet still has downy feathers. Photo by Todd Rawlinson.

Most of the threats to Mexican spotted owls are actually threats to their habitat. A habitat is where a plant or animal finds enough food, water, shelter, and space to survive. Threats to Mexican spotted owl habitats include logging, wildfires, urban development (buildings and roads), and livestock grazing. Livestock grazing destroys the grass cover needed by the owl’s prey. This owl species was listed as threatened under the Endangered Species Act of 1973. This species was listed as threatened because its habitat had been broken into smaller parts by wildfires and timber harvesting.

 

The Mexican spotted owl is facing another possible threat. Climate change may further threaten this owl indirectly. A changing climate may cause the owl’s habitat to become warmer and drier, increasing the number of wildfires. In the longer term, a warmer and drier climate will likely change the type of tree species and where the trees are growing within the owl’s habitat. Currently, the owls use the dense shade of old- growth trees to help keep them cool. These indirect threats may cause further challenges for the Mexican spotted owl.

What Is Meant by “Threatened” under the Endangered Species Act of 1973?

The Endangered Species Act of 1973 defines a threatened species as “any species which is likely to become an endangered species within the foreseeable future throughout all or a significant portion of its range.” An endangered species is “any species which is in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its range.” Threatened and endangered species are protected under the law.

A changing climate may also directly impact Mexican spotted owls. Recall that under a changing climate, the owls’ habitat will likely become warmer and drier. Mexican spotted owls may have a low tolerance for heat. These owls seek shaded, cooler environments to roost (rest) and nest. These environments are either in canyonland bottoms under the shade of cliffs or in the dense shade of old-growth forests (figure 6).

 

A stand of very old conifers with tall, straight trunks. Smaller trees grow around them.
Figure 6. Old-growth forests contain trees that are hundreds or sometimes thousands of years old. Adobe Stock photo.

Mexican spotted owls are endothermic, just like you. When the air temperature is too hot or too cold, these owls take action to maintain a steady and safe body temperature. You already know that these owls seek cooler, shaded environments for roosting and nesting. But what might happen as the air temperature continues to rise in a changing climate? The scientists in this study were interested in exploring this question. The scientists wanted to know how warmer air temperatures might affect an owl’s individual energy use and the amount of water evaporation an individual owl might experience.

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Methods

The scientists studied Mexican spotted owl habitat in the Sacramento Mountains of New Mexico (figure 7). The Sacramento Mountains are comprised of a large montane ecosystem. These mountains are like a forested island surrounded by a desert “sea” (figure 8). Montane ecosystems are found on mountain slopes. They are moist, cool environments and have large, often coniferous, trees. The montane ecosystem studied by the scientists contained a mix of conifers, including white fir and Douglas-fir.

 

A close-up map of Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, and northern Mexico; the Lincoln National Forest is marked in green and the Sacramento Mountains run through the forest. A smaller map of the United States is off to the left and shows the area the larger map focuses on.

Figure 7. The Sacramento Mountains are located in the Lincoln National Forest in south- central New Mexico. FIND Outdoors map by Leslie Shaw Design.

A photo of the Sacramento Mountains taken from the mountainside. Trees and small, scrubby plants grow in the foreground, the mountains are in the middle ground and in the far distance, and between the two is a flat, desert landscape.

Figure 8. The Sacramento Mountains are a montane forest ecosystem surrounded by desert. Photo by Ryan Jonnes.

The scientists established 14 mobile weather stations within the forest (figure 9). These weather stations recorded weather data every hour, 24 hours a day, for 5 years (including only part of 2 years, equaling about 4 total years). The weather data used by the scientists included the outdoor air temperature in degrees Celsius (°C) and relative humidity, or how much moisture is in the air. Relative humidity is measured from 0 percent (no moisture) to 100 percent. A rainy day may have between 90 and 99 percent relative humidity.

 

A mobile weather station with various instruments and a solar panel stands in a clearing of green plants.
Figure 9. Fourteen mobile weather stations similar to this one were placed throughout the study area. Adobe Stock photo.

Number Crunch

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The weather stations were located in eight Mexican spotted owl territories, and the average percentage of canopy cover over the weather stations was 90.4 percent (figure 10). The scientists used precipitation data for the study area that were collected by the National Weather Service. These data included rainfall and snowfall.

A densiometer: a white cylindrical piece of equipment with a small glass half-dome on top. It sits on a piece of plexiglass held up by a white frame.

Figure 10. (A) The scientists used a piece of equipment called a densiometer to measure the amount of canopy cover in the forest.

A photo of the tree canopy taken as if the photographer were lying on the ground. Very little sky is visible through the canopy.

Figure 10. (B) Canopy cover is the amount of tree cover in a particular area. Adobe Stock photo.

The scientists used existing information about how much energy similar species of spotted owls use when they are at rest. They began with a measurement called resting metabolic rate. Resting metabolic rate is the amount of energy required by an animal’s body (including yours!) to perform the most basic functions when at rest, such as breathing, circulating blood, or basic brain functions. Resting metabolic rate may be different at different air temperatures.

 

The scientists used equations to estimate the resting metabolic rate of these owls at each recorded air temperature value. These equations were different depending on whether the air temperature was within, above, or below a special range of air temperatures. This special range is called the thermoneutral (thür mō nū trəl) zone, or TNZ.

What Is the Thermoneutral Zone?

All endothermic animals, including you, have a range of air temperatures within which they prefer to stay. This range of air temperatures is called the thermoneutral zone, or TNZ. Within this range, a healthy adult animal can maintain its normal body temperature while at rest. If the air temperature is above the TNZ range of temperatures, an animal must spend energy to lower its body temperature. In the case of humans, for example, a person perspires. A dog pants. An owl flutters its neck muscles. In all cases, the animal will lose water as they cool off. If the air temperature is below the TNZ range of temperatures, an animal must spend energy to raise its body temperature.

A rectangle illustrating the temperatures a body can be exposed to. The rectangle shades from blue on the left to orange on the right. On the left, at the coldest air temperatures, is death from cold stress, then the cold zone (hypothermia and cold stress), then the thermoneutral zone – ranging from cool zone to comfort zone to warm zone. Next is the hot zone (hyperthermia and heat stress) and finally death from heat stress.

The scientists now had a resting metabolic rate for each of the approximately 500,000 hours of data collection. Each resting metabolic rate was connected to an air temperature value. The scientists used another equation to estimate how much energy an owl would need to use to maintain its healthy body temperature at every temperature value.

 

The scientists then used another equation to estimate how much water an owl would lose from evaporation at each of the approximately 500,000 air temperature values. This estimate is called evaporative water loss, or EWL. Recall that more water is lost at higher air temperatures.

 

The scientists now had estimates for:

(1) How many observations were within, above, and below the owl’s TNZ.

(2) How much energy an owl would use at rest at every observed temperature above, within, and below the TNZ.

(3) How much water an owl would lose to evaporation in air temperatures above, within, and below the TNZ.

 

They then predicted the owl’s energy use and water loss in 2070 and 2099.

 

Reflection Section

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Findings

Recall that the 14 weather stations recorded the air temperature every hour. The median temperature was higher than the 30-year average (or normal) air temperature across all years (figure 11). Despite the warmer temperatures, the air temperature never went higher than the upper range of the owl’s TNZ (35.2 °C). In contrast, over 90 percent of the temperatures were below the owl’s lower limit of the TNZ (18.2 °C). The lowest air temperature values were recorded in the winter, and the highest air temperature values were recorded in June and July. Median maximum daily air temperatures were less than 18.2 °C for all months except June and August. The median minimum daily air temperatures were less than 18.2 °C for all months.

 

The National Weather Service reported precipitation that was equally higher and lower than the normal precipitation values. Most precipitation occurred from May through October. Relative humidity under the forest trees was highest from July through October and lowest during the nesting season, which is April through June.

 

A box plot graph of average and mean air temperatures per year in degrees Celsius. Most of the boxes are above the line marking the average air temperature over 30 years.
Figure 11. Average and median air temperature per year in degrees Celsius (°C). The long horizontal line represents the average air temperature over 30 years. Within each box, the horizontal line represents the median air temperature for the year . The box represents the 25th to the 75th percentile (the interquartile range). The small lines above and below the boxes represent the lowest and highest recorded air temperatures. FIND Outdoors illustration by Liz Sisk.

Number Crunch

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The scientists estimated the owls’ resting metabolic rate and evaporative water loss (figure 12). The owls’ resting metabolic rate was highest in winter. The resting metabolic rate declined in the spring, was lowest in summer, and then increased in the fall. Evaporative water loss (EWL) followed a pattern somewhat opposite from resting metabolic rate. EWL was lowest during the winter months and highest during the warmer and wetter summer months.

 

A box plot graph of resting metabolic rate of the owls over the months of the year. The resting metabolic rate dips lowest in the center of the graph, from May to July.

Figure 12. (A) This graph shows the yearly trend in resting metabolic rate for Mexican spotted owls. FIND Outdoors illustration by Liz Sisk.

A box plot graph of the average daily evaporative water loss for the owls over the months of the year. Their evaporative water loss peaks in the center of the graph, from May to July.

Figure 12. (B) This graph shows the yearly trend in evaporative water loss (EWL) for Mexican spotted owls. FIND Outdoors illustrations by Liz Sisk.

Recall that the scientists added 3 °C and 6 °C to each of the recorded temperatures to evaluate the impact of climate change on the Mexican spotted owl. The impact of increasing temperatures reduced the proportion of air temperature values that were below the TNZ and increased the proportion of air temperature values that were within the TNZ. Even when 6 °C was added to each recorded air temperature value, the air temperature rarely went above 35.2 °C. In these climate change scenarios, the overall effect was to reduce the amount of energy required by an owl to keep its body temperature within the TNZ, as compared with current energy use.

 

Increases of 3 °C and 6 °C resulted in greater EWL, however. Adding 3 °C resulted in an increase in estimated water loss of 14 percent and adding 6 °C resulted in an increase in estimated water loss of 29 percent.

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Discussion

The scientists discovered that owls living below the cool forest canopy rarely experienced air temperatures that were too high. Rather, most of the air temperatures were low enough to cause the owls to use energy staying warm. The owls needed and used more water during the summer months. However, this time coincided with the greatest availability of water and high relative humidity. Thus, it appears that Mexican spotted owls are currently well adapted to their habitat.

 

As the climate changes, however, the situation for Mexican spotted owls may change. Evaporative water loss (EWL) is expected to increase as air temperature increases. Rising temperatures may also change the habitat of small mammals. If this occurs, the owls’ food may be harder to find. About 60 percent of an owl’s water comes from its food. The owls may need to depend more on surface water, such as streams, rivers, and ponds. Unfortunately, obtaining water from streams, rivers, and ponds is not an option for baby owls still in the nest, where they spend the first 5 weeks of their lives. Lowered amounts of precipitation in the future, therefore, may result in an overall decrease in the population of Mexican spotted owls.

 

Currently, forest managers are working to keep and develop patches of old-growth forests that have thick canopies. This strategy of protecting patches of older and cooler forests may provide protective habitat for Mexican spotted owls. Such protection may provide a refuge for these owls as the climate continues to warm.

 

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Adapted from Ganey, J.L.; Ward, J.P.; Rawlinson, T.A.; Kyle, S.C.; Jonnes, R.S. 2020. Annual climate in Mexican Spotted Owl habitat in the Sacramento Mountains, New Mexico: Implications for responding to climate change. Journal of Field Ornithology. 91(3): 225–240.

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  • As you have learned in “Owl-ch!,” humans are endotherms who, like other mammals and birds, must maintain a constant internal temperature in changing air temperatures. In this FACTivity, you will...

    FACTivity – Owl-ch!

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    As you have learned in “Owl-ch!,” humans are endotherms who, like other mammals and birds, must maintain a constant internal temperature in changing air temperatures. In this FACTivity, you will...
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Glossary

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  • canopy cover

    (ka nə pē kə vər): The layer of tree leaves, branches, and stems that provide tree coverage of the ground when viewed from above.

  • cavity

    (ka vǝ tē): An unfilled space within a mass, especially a hollowed-out space.

  • coincide

    (kō ən sīd): To occupy the same place in space or time.

  • coniferous

    (kō ni f(ǝ) rǝs): Characterized by leaves resembling needles or scales in shape and including forms (like pines) with true cones.

  • downy

    (dau̇ nē): Covered with down, a covering of soft fluffy feathers.

  • elevation

    (e lǝ vā shǝn): The height above sea level.

  • lush

    (ləsh): Having full and healthy growth.

  • median

    (mē dē ən): A value in a series arranged from smallest to largest below and above which there are an equal number of values or which is the average of the two middle values if there is no one middle value.

  • prey

    (prā): An animal taken by a predator as food.

  • refuge

    (re fyüj): A place that provides shelter or protection.

  • riparian

    (rə per ē ən): Relating to or living or located on the bank of a natural watercourse (such as a river or sometimes a lake or tidewater).

  • scenario

    (sə ner ē ō): A sequence of events especially when imagined.

  • subspecies

    (səb spē shēz): A category in biological classification that ranks immediately below a species; designates a population of a particular geographic region that is genetically distinguishable from other such populations of the same species. A subspecies is capable of interbreeding successfully with other populations of the same species where its range overlaps theirs.

  • Dr. Ganey wears a backpack, sunglasses, and a baseball cap and stands in a forest.

    Joe Ganey

    Wildlife Ecologist

    In a long career in field ecology, I have had so many amazing moments that it is difficult to pick a single highlight. I vividly remember the first time I...
    View Profile
  • Dr. Ward sits outside on a boulder with his dog.

    James P. Ward

    Wildlife Ecologist

    My favorite science experience is difficult to choose—there are so many incredible moments I’ve enjoyed “in the field” studying wildlife and in particular, spotted owls. A clear and memorable high-point...
    View Profile
  • Todd Rawlinson sits outside and writes notes in a notebook. Mountains are in the background.

    Todd Rawlinson

    Wildlife Biologist

    While studying forest habitats, wildlife species, and wildland fires, we now understand that the greatest risk to most forest species is catastrophic, high-intensity wildfire. During my career, I have learned...
    View Profile
  • Sean Kyle stands in front of a rock formation.

    Sean Kyle

    Wildlife Biologist

    I have been lucky to work with rodents, birds, bats, reptiles, amphibians, and all the way up to big game across 12 States. I earned a bachelor’s degree in zoology...
    View Profile
  • Ryan Jonnes stands outside; behind him is bare red dirt and grassland.

    Ryan Jonnes

    Wildlife Biologist

    The great outdoors has had a lasting impact on my life. The outdoors has shaped my hobbies, work, and family. I like to fish, hunt, camp, and hike. In 2005,...
    View Profile

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Standards addressed in this Article:

The Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) are a set of K-12 science education standards emphasizing inquiry-based learning, real-world applications, and integrating engineering practices, aiming to deepen understanding of science while promoting critical thinking and problem-solving skills.
  • ESS2.C-M1
    Water continually cycles among land, ocean, and atmosphere via transpiration, evaporation, condensation and crystallization, and precipitation, as well as downhill flows on land.
  • ESS2.D-H3
    Changes in the atmosphere due to human activity have increased carbon dioxide concentrations and thus affect climate.
  • ESS2.D-H4
    Current models predict that, although future regional climate changes will be complex and varied, average global temperatures will continue to rise. The outcomes predicted by global climate models strongly depend on the amounts of human-generated greenhouse gases added to the atmosphere each year and by the ways in which these gases are absorbed by the ocean and biosphere.
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    The many dynamic and delicate feedbacks between the biosphere and other Earth systems cause a continual co-evolution of Earth’s surface and the life that exists on it.
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    The sustainability of human societies and the biodiversity that supports them requires responsible management of natural resources.
  • ESS3.C-H2
    Scientists and engineers can make major contributions by developing technologies that produce less pollution and waste and that preclude ecosystem degradation.
  • ESS3.C-M1
    Human activities have significantly altered the biosphere, sometimes damaging or destroying natural habitats and causing the extinction of other species. But changes to Earth’s environments can have different impacts (negative and positive) for different living things.
  • ESS3.D-H1
    Though the magnitudes of human impacts are greater than they have ever been, so too are human abilities to model, predict, and manage current and future impacts.
  • ESS3.D-H2
    Through computer simulations and other studies, important discoveries are still being made about how the ocean, the atmosphere, and the biosphere interact and are modified in response to human activities.
  • LS1.A-H4
    Feedback mechanisms maintain a living system’s internal conditions within certain limits and mediate behaviors, allowing it to remain alive and functional even as external conditions change within some range. Feedback mechanisms can encourage (through positive feedback) or discourage (negative feedback) what is going on inside the living system.
  • LS2.A-H1
    Ecosystems have carrying capacities, which are limits to the numbers of organisms and populations they can support. These limits result from such factors as the availability of living and nonliving resources and from challenges such as predation, competition, and disease. Organisms would have the capacity to produce populations of great size were it not for the fact that environments and resources are finite. This fundamental tension affects the abundance (number of individuals) of species in any given ecosystem.
  • LS2.A-M1
    Organisms, and populations of organisms, are dependent on their environmental interactions both with other living things and with nonliving factors.
  • LS2.A-M3
    Growth of organisms and population increases are limited by access to resources.
  • LS2.C-H1
    A complex set of interactions within an ecosystem can keep its numbers and types of organisms relatively constant over long periods of time under stable conditions. If a modest biological or physical disturbance to an ecosystem occurs, it may return to its more or less original status (i.e., the ecosystem is resilient), as opposed to becoming a very different ecosystem. Extreme fluctuations in conditions or the size of any population, however, can challenge the functioning of ecosystems in terms of resources and habitat availability.
  • LS2.C-H2
    Moreover, anthropogenic changes (induced by human activity) in the environment—including habitat destruction, pollution, introduction of invasive species, overexploitation, and climate change—can disrupt an ecosystem and threaten the survival of some species.
  • LS2.C-M1
    Ecosystems are dynamic in nature; their characteristics can vary over time. Disruptions to any physical or biological component of an ecosystem can lead to shifts in all its populations.
  • LS2.C-M2
    Biodiversity describes the variety of species found in Earth’s terrestrial and oceanic ecosystems. The completeness or integrity of an ecosystem’s biodiversity is often used as a measure of its health.
  • LS4.C-H4
    Changes in the physical environment, whether naturally occurring or human induced, have thus contributed to the expansion of some species, the emergence of new distinct species as populations diverge under different conditions, and the decline–and sometimes the extinction–of some species.
  • LS4.C-H5
    Species become extinct because they can no longer survive and reproduce in their altered environment. If members cannot adjust to change that is too fast or drastic, the opportunity for the species’ evolution is lost.
  • LS4.D-H1
    Biodiversity is increased by the formation of new species (speciation) and decreased by the loss of species (extinction).
  • LS4.D-H2
    Humans depend on the living world for the resources and other benefits provided by biodiversity. But human activity is also having adverse impacts on biodiversity through overpopulation, overexploitation, habitat destruction, pollution, introduction of invasive species, and climate change. Thus, sustaining biodiversity so that ecosystem functioning and productivity are maintained is essential to supporting and enhancing life on Earth. Sustaining biodiversity also aids humanity by preserving landscapes of recreational or inspirational value.
  • PS3.A-M3
    The term “heat” as used in everyday language refers both to thermal energy (the motion of atoms or molecules within a substance) and the transfer of that thermal energy from one object to another. In science, heat is used only for this second meaning; it refers to the energy transferred due to the temperature difference between two objects.
  • PS3.A-M4
    The temperature of a system is proportional to the average internal kinetic energy and potential energy per atom or molecule (whichever is the appropriate building block for the system’s material). The details of that relationship depend on the type of atom or molecule and the interactions among the atoms in the material. Temperature is not a direct measure of a system's total thermal energy. The total thermal energy (sometimes called the total internal energy) of a system depends jointly on the temperature, the total number of atoms in the system, and the state of the material.
  • PS3.B-M2
    The amount of energy transfer needed to change the temperature of a matter sample by a given amount depends on the nature of the matter, the size of the sample, and the environment.
The Common Core Standards are educational benchmarks in the United States that outline clear expectations for what students should know and be able to do in English language arts and mathematics from kindergarten through 12th grade, aiming to ensure consistency and coherence in education nationwide.
  • Cite specific textual evidence to support analysis of science and technical texts.
  • By the end of grade 8, read and comprehend science/technical texts in the grades 6-8 text complexity band independently and proficiently.
  • Determine the central ideas or conclusions of a text; provide an accurate summary of the text distinct from prior knowledge or opinions.
  • Follow precisely a multistep procedure when carrying out experiments, taking measurements, or performing technical tasks.
  • Determine the meaning of symbols, key terms, and other domain-specific words and phrases as they are used in a specific scientific or technical context relevant to grades 6-8 texts and topics.
  • Analyze the structure an author uses to organize a text, including how the major sections contribute to the whole and to an understanding of the topic.
  • Analyze the author's purpose in providing an explanation, describing a procedure, or discussing an experiment in a text.
  • Integrate quantitative or technical information expressed in words in a text with a version of that information expressed visually (e.g., in a flowchart, diagram, model, graph, or table).
  • Distinguish among facts, reasoned judgment based on research findings, and speculation in a text.
  • Compare and contrast the information gained from experiments, simulations, video, or multimedia sources with that gained from reading a text on the same topic.
  • Cite specific textual evidence to support analysis of science and technical texts, attending to the precise details of explanations or descriptions.
  • By the end of grade 10, read and comprehend science/technical texts in the grades 9-10 text complexity band independently and proficiently.
  • Determine the central ideas or conclusions of a text; trace the text's explanation or depiction of a complex process, phenomenon, or concept; provide an accurate summary of the text.
  • Follow precisely a complex multistep procedure when carrying out experiments, taking measurements, or performing technical tasks, attending to special cases or exceptions defined in the text.
  • Determine the meaning of symbols, key terms, and other domain-specific words and phrases as they are used in a specific scientific or technical context relevant to grades 9-10 texts and topics.
  • Analyze the structure of the relationships among concepts in a text, including relationships among key terms (e.g., force, friction, reaction force, energy).
  • Analyze the author's purpose in providing an explanation, describing a procedure, or discussing an experiment in a text, defining the question the author seeks to address.
  • Translate quantitative or technical information expressed in words in a text into visual form (e.g., a table or chart) and translate information expressed visually or mathematically (e.g., in an equation) into words.
  • Assess the extent to which the reasoning and evidence in a text support the author's claim or a recommendation for solving a scientific or technical problem.
  • Compare and contrast findings presented in a text to those from other sources (including their own experiments), noting when the findings support or contradict previous explanations or accounts.
Social Studies Standards are educational guidelines outlining the essential knowledge, skills, and concepts students should learn in subjects such as history, geography, civics, and economics, aiming to provide a comprehensive understanding of societal structures, historical events, and global perspectives.
  • People, Places, and Environments
  • Science, Technology, and Society
  • Time, Continuity, and Change

What Is a Natural Inquirer Journal?

Three Natural Inquirer journal covers with NI bee

 

A Natural Inquirer journal is a collection of 4-8 articles on a related science topic. Journals are written for a middle school audience, but they can also be adapted for both high school students and advanced upper elementary students. Some journals are particularly suited to high school students; you can find our grade level recommendations in the tags on the product page or by filtering journals by grade level.

Journals include:

  • Four to eight articles based on published, peer-reviewed research papers; the articles keep the research paper format (see more below) but are written in language students can understand.
  • A FACTivity for each article, which is an activity to complete after reading the article. The FACTivity helps reinforce major science concepts from the article. These activities are designed to be easy to implement, with few material requirements and options for adapting them for your audience or available resources. Some articles in a journal may have two FACTivities.
  • A short “Welcome to the journal” article about key background information and science concepts that unify the articles included in the journal
  • A glossary of new terms for each article and the introductory materials.
  • A list of related Natural Inquirer publications for each article as well as outside references.
  • Standards correlations, including Next Generation Science Standards, addressed in the articles and the FACTivities.

Journals may also include additional essays (called spotlights), other activities (like crossword puzzles or vocabulary challenges), and more.

 

A screenshot of the article resource tile for "A Flame Changer" showing the three different format option buttons.

Reading Modes

Journals are available in three different formats:

  • Hard copies can be ordered from the website and shipped, all free of charge.
  • PDF versions of the printed journal can be downloaded free on the website. The PDF version directly replicates the content and layout of the printed version. You can also download individual articles as pdfs.
  • The “Read Distraction Free” option allows the individual articles to open in their own window, without the rest of the website being visible. These articles can be found under the “Articles” tab. This version allows readers to scroll to particular sections of the article using the sidebar menu on the left side of the screen. This version also has interactive Reflection Sections and Number Crunches. Students can enter their answers, submit them, and then receive the correct answers to double-check their work. Submitted answers are not saved on the website and will disappear once the window is closed.

What's in a Natural Inquirer Article?

Here, we'll go into more detail about the parts of a Natural Inquirer article and give you some ideas about how they can be used.

  1. Meet the Scientists

    This section introduces the scientists (and others) who worked on the study. In their own words, they each share a memorable science experience, a favorite research project, or something they learned during the course of their education or research.

    Use this section to:

    • Introduce kids to the variety of people who work in science
    • Introduce kids to the variety of scientific fields and give brief descriptions of science-related jobs
    • Explore ways that people interact with science every day

    Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) applications:

    • Science and Engineering Practices
    • Crosscutting Concepts: Influence of Science, Engineering, and Technology on Society and the Natural World

    Note that specific standards for this particular monograph are linked on this educator guide tab.

    Other resources:

    Many of the scientists and engineers featured in this section are also featured on our collector cards. Learn more about their work, how they got interested in their fields, and interesting projects they worked on. Cards can be printed as posters, too.

    A sample Meet the Scientists page, showing four different scientists

  2. Thinking About Science

    This section briefly describes a concept about science or scientific research. This overview can touch on topics like

    • study type (longitudinal study, quantitative vs. qualitative data),
    • behaviors of scientists (conducting literature reviews, collaborating with other specialists, replicating earlier studies),
    • the practice of science (the scientific method, engineering design, data collection, randomization, controls and variables),
    • or other aspects of science (bias, correlation vs. causation).

    Use this section to:

    • Reinforce steps in the scientific method and the process of science
    • Encourage students to think about the practice of science and what it can and cannot tell us
    • Consider the many types of scientific study and what information each type can provide

    Next Generation Science Standards applications:

    • Science and Engineering Practices
    • Life Science Disciplinary Core Ideas (depending on topic)
    • Most Crosscutting Concepts (depending on topic)

    Note that specific standards for this particular monograph are linked on this educator guide tab.

    Other resources:

    You can use key words to search for other or related scientific topics on our website (e.g. “longitudinal study,” “bias,” or “sampling”).

    A sample Thinking About Science page from a recent monograph

  3. Thinking About the Environment

    This section provides a brief overview of a topic or concept in environmental/life science. The topic or concept is directly related to the research study that follows. Examples of topics include the carbon cycle, the water cycle, habitat fragmentation, phenology, biodiversity, and ecosystem services.

    Use this section to:

    • Provide important background information to help students understand the research study
    • Serve as a quick reference during reading or class instruction
    • Connect the research article with other activities or media on the same topic

    Next Generation Science Standards applications:

    • Life Science and some Earth Science Disciplinary Core Ideas (depending on topic)
    • Most Crosscutting Concepts (depending on topic)

    Note that specific standards for this particular monograph are linked on this educator guide tab.

    Other resources:

    You can use key words to search for more resources on life or earth science topics on our website (e.g. “habitat,” “carbon,” or “genetics”).

    A sample "Thinking About the Environment" section from a recent monograph

  4. Introduction

    This section begins the scientific article format. Much like the published, peer-reviewed study this article is based on, the introduction provides background information for the study – what is currently known and what remains unknown. The introduction culminates in the question(s) the study hopes to answer.

    The introduction is also the first section with a Reflection Section. This section includes two or three questions to help kids reflect on what they’ve just learned in the Introduction. If they are using the online distraction-free reading mode, they can answer these questions directly on the website.

    Use this section to:

    • Review important background information that kids need to understand the study
    • Connect the study to the concepts addressed in the Thinking About Science and Thinking About the Environment sections
    • Understand research questions and hypotheses, including generating their own hypotheses given what they already know

    Next Generation Science Standards applications:

    • Life Science and some Earth Science Disciplinary Core Ideas (depending on topic)
    • Most Crosscutting Concepts (depending on topic)

    Note that specific standards for this particular monograph are linked on this educator guide tab.

    Other resources:

    Use one of the guided reading lesson plans to help kids follow the format of a scientific paper.

    A sample introduction page from "Hidden in Plain Sight"

  5. Methods

    This section is the nuts and bolts of the study design – the who, what, when, where, why, and how of the research. Contained within the Methods section are usually maps of the study location or the set-up of study plots, as well as details about what data was collected and how.

    The Methods section also ends with a Reflection Section – two or three questions to help students think through what they just read. These questions are interactive on the distraction-free reading mode.

    Use this section to:

    • Show students how experiments and studies are designed and carried out
    • Explore sampling methods and randomization
    • Introduce various data collection tools (e.g. camera traps, surveys, insect collection tools, weather stations, etc.)
    • Explain bias and how studies are designed to remove bias
    • Help students gain experience with map reading

    Next Generation Science Standards applications:

    • Life Science and some Earth Science Disciplinary Core Ideas (depending on topic)
    • Most Crosscutting Concepts (depending on topic)

    Note that specific standards for this particular monograph are linked on this educator guide tab.

    Other resources:

    Many Methods and Findings sections contain Number Crunches, which are simple math exercises designed to help students interact with the data from the study.

    A sample methods section of a monograph article showing a map

  6. Findings

    This section summarizes the data collected during the study. The Findings section usually includes data tables or graphs and highlights the significant data points from the study. This section often mentions statistical analysis or the use of computer programs to model or analyze the data, though these methods are only discussed generally.

    The Findings section also ends with a Reflection Section – two or three questions to help students think through what they just read. These questions are interactive on the distraction-free reading mode.

    Use this section to:

    • Have students practice reading and interpreting graphs and tables
    • Compare results between variables and controls
    • Explain the concept of statistical significance
    • Discuss how no data or negative results still provide valuable information

    Next Generation Science Standards applications:

    • Life Science and some Earth Science Disciplinary Core Ideas (depending on topic)
    • Most Crosscutting Concepts (depending on topic)

    Note that specific standards for this particular monograph are linked on this educator guide tab.

    Other resources:

    Search the website for “map” or “graph” to find activities where students can practice making and reading maps and graphs.

    The beginning of a Findings section featuring a large data table

  7. Discussion

    This section concludes each article. In it, we summarize the main findings of the scientists’ study. Additionally, we present the scientists’ ideas about the limitations of their study, the big-picture impacts of their research, and the scientists’ plans for future study or action.

    The Discussion section ends with a Reflection Section – two or three questions to help students think through what they just read, especially general take-aways from the study. These questions are interactive on the distraction-free reading mode.

    Use this section to:

    • Discuss what conclusions can and cannot be drawn from the available data
    • Explain the difference between correlation and causation
    • Explore study limitations and opportunities for further study
    • Brainstorm ways the study findings could be applied to real-world situations

    Next Generation Science Standards applications:

    • Life Science and some Earth Science Disciplinary Core Ideas (depending on topic)
    • Most Crosscutting Concepts (depending on topic)

    Note that specific standards for this particular monograph are linked on this educator guide tab.

    Other resources:

    Use the “Designing Your Own Study” resource page for videos of scientists discussing their own research studies. The page also includes educator resources to help students plan their own scientific studies.

    The beginning of the conclusion of "Hidden in Plain Sight"

Additional Resources on the Website

A screenshot of the product tabs for an NI monographOn the website, we pair each journal with a variety of other resources, as well. Use the tabs on the product page to browse through the following:

  • Related activities, including the FACTivity for each article
  • An “About” essay that gives some larger context for the research the scientists conducted or more information about the science topic from the journal
  • A glossary of all boldfaced terms from the journal
  • A “Scientists and Collaborators” page that lists the people involved in the studies in the journal; click on a researcher to reach their bio page and see what other articles they might be featured in
  • A “Related Content” page that lists both Natural Inquirer resources about similar topics and also outside reference materials

Article Selection and Review

Natural Inquirer partners with the USDA Forest Service, so we source research studies by Forest Service scientists that have been peer-reviewed and published in reputable journals. Some of our articles have also been created in collaboration with scientists from other Federal agencies, such as U.S. Geological Survey and the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, universities, and other non-profits.

All journal articles are reviewed by scientists who conducted the original research study to verify scientific accuracy. Journals are also reviewed by student editorial review boards of middle or high school students before publication. Additionally, all journals are reviewed by the Forest Service and the U.S. Department of Agriculture before publication.

A screenshot of the citation for "Lights, Camera, Tracks"Every journal article includes a citation of its source study. Many educators pair the original research paper with our article to help more advanced students learn how to read formal research papers. The journal article then serves as adapted primary literature, bridging the two articles.

Lessons

  • In this lesson, students are introduced to scientific abstracts and how to read and write them. Note: This lesson plan can be used with any Natural Inquirer article or monograph.

    Scientific Abstract Lesson Plan

    • Lesson Plan
    • High School
    • Middle School
    • 1 Classroom Period
    • scientific abstracts
    In this lesson, students are introduced to scientific abstracts and how to read and write them. Note: This lesson plan can be used with any Natural Inquirer article or monograph.
    • Explore Lesson Plan
    • Download Lesson Plan (PDF)
    • Explore Lesson Plan
    • Download Lesson Plan (PDF)
  • In this lesson plan, students will read a Natural Inquirer article and write short summary notes from each section. Students will then create “6-W Poems” that reflect their understanding of...

    Lesson Plan – The 6-W Questions

    • Lesson Plan
    • High School
    • Middle School
    • 2-3 Classroom Periods
    • Active Forest Management
    • Agriculture
    • Carbon
    • Citizen Science
    • Engineering and Forest Products
    • Fire
    • Insects
    • Pollinators
    • Pollution
    • Recreation
    • Social Science
    • Water
    • Wilderness
    • Wildlife
    • Graphic Organizer
    • Guided reading
    • Poem
    • Reading Comprehension
    • Writing
    In this lesson plan, students will read a Natural Inquirer article and write short summary notes from each section. Students will then create “6-W Poems” that reflect their understanding of...
    • Explore Lesson Plan
    • Download Lesson Plan (PDF)
    • Explore Lesson Plan
    • Download Lesson Plan (PDF)

    Part Of

    Show Me the Money: Promoting Sustainable Forests in the South
  • In this lesson, students will create a storyboard to graphically represent the main points from the research article they read. This lesson plan can be used with any Natural Inquirer...

    Lesson Plan – Storyboard

    • Lesson Plan
    • High School
    • Middle School
    • 2-3 Classroom Periods
    • Active Forest Management
    • Agriculture
    • Carbon
    • Citizen Science
    • Engineering and Forest Products
    • Fire
    • Insects
    • Pollinators
    • Pollution
    • Recreation
    • Social Science
    • Water
    • Wilderness
    • Wildlife
    • Creative
    • Guided reading
    • Story Telling
    In this lesson, students will create a storyboard to graphically represent the main points from the research article they read. This lesson plan can be used with any Natural Inquirer...
    • Explore Lesson Plan
    • Download Lesson Plan (PDF)
    • Explore Lesson Plan
    • Download Lesson Plan (PDF)

    Part Of

    Freshwater - Vol. 18 No. 1

Education Files

Download PDF

Jump To

  • Related from Natural Inquirer
  • Additional Resources

Related Resources from the Natural Inquirer

  • The northern spotted owl is an endangered species that needs old-growth forests in the Pacific Northwest to live. Unfortunately, old-growth forests, like all forests, may catch fire and be damaged...

    Who Gives a Hoot? Determining the Value of Owl Habitat

    • Article
    • Middle School
    • 1 Classroom Period
    • Fire
    • Social Science
    • Wildlife
    • Conservation
    • Economics
    • Endangered Species
    • Fire
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    • Northern Spotted Owl
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    • Random Sample
    The northern spotted owl is an endangered species that needs old-growth forests in the Pacific Northwest to live. Unfortunately, old-growth forests, like all forests, may catch fire and be damaged...
    • Explore Article
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    • Explore Article
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    Wildland Fire - Vol. 4 No. 1
  • In this study, the student scientists wanted to determine if the Oxbow is a good habitat for the great horned owl. (This article is part of the Student Scientist edition...

    The Great Horned Owl in the Oxbow

    • Article
    • Middle School
    • 1 Classroom Period
    • Citizen Science
    • Wildlife
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    • Emerald Ash Borer
    • Food Web
    • Great Horned Owl
    • Habitat
    • Human Impacts
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    • Student Scientist
    In this study, the student scientists wanted to determine if the Oxbow is a good habitat for the great horned owl. (This article is part of the Student Scientist edition...
    • Explore Article
    • Download Article (PDF)
    • Explore Article
    • Download Article (PDF)

    Part Of

    Student Scientist - Vol. 10 No. 1
  • Identifying which species may be the most vulnerable to a changing climate is important. This information can help people make decisions about how to best manage the land. It can...

    Wild Ways: Assessing How Climate Change May Affect Certain Wildlife

    • Article
    • Upper Elementary
    • 1 Classroom Period
    • Active Forest Management
    • Wildlife
    • Bats
    • Birds
    • Climate Change
    • Coronado National Forest
    • Endangered Species
    • Frogs
    • Squirrels
    • Threatened Species
    • Vulnerable Species
    Identifying which species may be the most vulnerable to a changing climate is important. This information can help people make decisions about how to best manage the land. It can...
    • Explore Article
    • Download Article (PDF)
    • Read Distraction Free
    • Explore Article
    • Download Article (PDF)
    • Read Distraction Free

    Part Of

    Animals and Ecosystems of the Southwestern United States Investi-gator (Rocky Mountain Research Station) - Vol. 3 No. 1
  • Is the Earth’s environment changing over time? In the past few years, most scientists have agreed on at least one thing about the changing environment. They have agreed that measured...

    Natural Inquirer – Vol. 14 No. 1

    • Journal
    • Middle School
    • Water
    • Wilderness
    • Wildlife
    • Biomass
    • Carbon Dioxide
    • Dendrochronology
    • Fossil Fuels
    • Groundwater
    • Habitat
    • Habitat Loss
    • Native Range
    • Satellites
    • Streams
    • Tree Rings
    • Wolverine
    Is the Earth’s environment changing over time? In the past few years, most scientists have agreed on at least one thing about the changing environment. They have agreed that measured...
    • Explore Journal
    • Download Journal (PDF)
    • Explore Journal
    • Download Journal (PDF)
  • Welcome to Natural IQ, a sister publication of Natural Inquirer. Natural IQ is a regional publication and focuses on environmental research in the Southern United States.  

    Natural IQ – Vol. 1 No. 1

    • Journal
    • Middle School
    • Active Forest Management
    • Agriculture
    • Carbon
    • Fire
    • Social Science
    • Water
    • Wildlife
    • Agriculture
    • Carbon Cycle
    • Carbon Dioxide
    • Carbon Sink
    • Climate
    • Climate Change
    • Drought
    • Economics
    • Ecosystem Services
    • Extreme Weather
    • Flooding
    • Forest management
    • Forest Succession
    • Fossil Fuels
    • Habitat
    • Heat Island
    • Human Health
    • Human Impacts
    • Invasive Species
    • Land Use
    • Latitude
    • Modeling
    • Native Species
    • Naturalized Species
    • Net Carbon Exchange
    • Nitrogen
    • Nonnative Species
    • Prescribed Fire
    • Range
    • Rural Areas
    • Streamflow
    • Transpiration
    • Water Cycle
    • Watershed
    • Wildfire
    • Wildland Fire
    Welcome to Natural IQ, a sister publication of Natural Inquirer. Natural IQ is a regional publication and focuses on environmental research in the Southern United States.  
    • Explore Journal
    • Download Journal (PDF)
    • Explore Journal
    • Download Journal (PDF)

Additional Resources

  • National Park Service: Mexican Spotted Owl

    Visit the NPS’s information page on Mexican spotted owls.

    Visit Website

  • U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service: Mexican Spotted Owl

    Visit the USFWS information page about Mexican spotted owls.

    Visit Website

  • USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: Living Map of Mexican Spotted Owl Habitat

    Researchers and managers have partnered to create cutting-edge, high-resolution, high-accuracy maps of Mexican spotted owl habitat – as well as long-term habitat trends – that can be updated annually as new data become available. An interactive Google Earth Engine experimental app allows end-users to explore mapped products.

    Visit Website

  • Cornell Ornithology Lab - All About Birds: Spotted Owl

    Learn more about spotted owls at Cornell Lab’s All About Birds. The site includes photographs and video and audio recordings.

    Visit Website

  • USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: Science You Can Use

    Read a quick overview of current RMRS research into the status of Mexican spotted owl habitat.

    Visit Website

  • USDA Forest Service: Reforestation project to restore Mexican spotted owl habitat, support tribal landscape initiative

    The USDA Forest Service is developing a five-year plan to reintroduce native plants and ponderosa pine trees in a 551-acre section of the Telegraph Fire burn scar to reestablish habitat for the Mexican spotted owl.

    Read Article
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The Natural Inquirer program produces a variety of science education materials for PreK through grade 12. Natural Inquirer products are produced by the USDA Forest Service, FIND Outdoors, and other cooperators and partners.

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