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  • Cedar Waxing or Waning? The Potential to Save Yellow-Cedar Trees Using Adaptive Management
Cover for the 'Cedar Waxing or Waning' article. The main image is a photograph of a heavily wooded forest.
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Cedar Waxing or Waning? The Potential to Save Yellow-Cedar Trees Using Adaptive Management

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  • Active Forest Management
  • Wilderness
  • Climate Change
  • Long-term Research
  • North Pacific Coastal Rainforest
  • Seedlings
  • Tree growth
  • Yellow-cedar Tree
Cover for the 'Cedar Waxing or Waning' article. The main image is a photograph of a heavily wooded forest.
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As the climate changes, the tree species living in a forest may also change. This change means that some trees species may die and new species may move into the area. Scientists find it difficult to know for sure whether tree movement and tree death result from a changing climate. Other factors, not related to climate, may also cause a forest’s tree species to change. The cause of yellow-cedar death was unknown for many years. The scientists in this study spent 20 years discovering the probable cause of yellow-cedar death.

 

Cedar Waxing or Waning? The Potential to Save Yellow-Cedar Trees Using Adaptive Management

Jump To

  • Meet the Scientists
  • Thinking About Science
  • Thinking About the Environment
  • Introduction
  • What Is Yellow-Cedar?
  • Methods
  • Findings
  • Discussion

Meet the Scientists

Paul Hennon

Plant Pathologist

My favorite science experience is working on a research team with scientists from different fields. Plus, my job takes me to so many remarkably beautiful, pristine, and remote places.   Read Full Bio

David D’Amore

Soil Scientist

My favorite science experience was conducting bird surveys in the forest. I assisted the bird survey crew and had to get up before dawn, which meant 2 a.m. in Alaska.... Read Full Bio

Dustin Wittwer

Geospatial Analyst | Geospatial Services Specialist

My favorite science experience is collecting and analyzing geographic data from the remote and wild locations of Alaska. I love testing and using new and innovative technology to collect geographic... Read Full Bio

Colin Shanley

Geographic Information Systems Analyst

My favorite science experience was spending the summer tracking mountain goats by foot in the Cascade Mountains of Washington and Oregon.   Read Full Bio

Paul Schaberg

Plant Physiologist

My favorite science experience is getting an unexpected result to an experiment. Sure, it is great to develop a hypothesis and test it in an experiment. A hypothesis is an... Read Full Bio

What Kinds of Scientists Did This Research?

  • Geographic information systems analyst: This scientist uses the relationship of information and places on Earth’s surface to produce maps. Using these maps and other information, these scientists evaluate what the maps reveal about any place shown on the map.
  • Geospatial services specialist: Like a geographic information systems analyst, this scientist uses any type of technology that accurately relates information to a place on Earth’s surface to increase understanding of that place.
  • Plant pathologist: This scientist studies plant diseases. Most diseases in trees are caused by fungi. Plant pathologists also investigate other injuries to plants and trees, such as those caused by weather and climate.
  • Plant physiologist: This scientist studies how plants function.
  • Soil scientist: This scientist studies Earth’s soils.

Thinking About Science

Some research questions are complicated and can take many years to answer. Sometimes, many research studies are needed to discover the answer. When a research question is complicated, it may be answered slowly by different studies and over many years. Each study usually confirms or disproves what is thought to be true about one aspect of the question. In this research, the scientists wanted to know why a particular tree species was dying in the north Pacific coastal rainforest. To discover why this species was dying, scientists had to investigate aspects of the question one by one. When they got one answer, they were ready to advance to the next study.

 

This process of asking research questions, getting answers, and then asking more questions is similar to adaptive management. In adaptive management, however, managers make decisions and take actions each time new information is discovered. For scientists and managers, these actions create new research questions to explore.

Thinking About the Environment

A changing climate is causing some plant and animal species to move from their current habitat to a new habitat. For plants, the need to move might cause a problem. How does this move happen for plants, which are unable to move like animals? In new areas where the climate is favorable, plants spread through their seeds. Plant species move, therefore, by having their seeds germinate in more favorable environments.

 

Natural resource managers want to make the best possible decisions as the climate changes. To make these decisions, managers need as much information as possible. They get
some of that information from scientists. In this study, the scientists wanted to understand how climate change was affecting the health of a particular tree species.

 

The scientists developed information to find the best way for the tree species to survive as the climate changes. Many tree species may be able to survive on their own as the climate changes. Others might need the help of humans. In this study, the scientists showed that the tree species they studied might need human help to survive in a changing climate. Now, managers can experiment with adaptive management options to see which one works best for this tree species.

How Do Plants Move?

To learn more about the movement of plants, read, “Seed Ya Later!”

What is Adaptive Management?

Have you ever heard that experience is the best teacher? This idea is the foundation of adaptive management. Adaptive management is a way for land managers to deal with an unknown future and to learn from trying new things. When land managers try something new, the outcome is evaluated. Based on the evaluation, the managers might try another approach to improve their
management. The process continues, with managers continuing to learn and adapt.

 

Scientists often help managers by designing and implementing the evaluation process. As you can see, scientists are involved in some parts of the adaptive management process. Land managers, however, treat the entire adaptive management process as an experiment. To use adaptive management to solve the problem of dying trees, managers must learn many things. What occurs when you do an experiment? Hopefully, you learn from your experience!

Introduction

One factor affecting the type, number, and location of tree species within forests is climate. As the climate changes, the tree species living in a forest may also change. This change means that some trees species may die and new species may move into the area. Scientists find it difficult to know for sure whether tree movement and tree death result from a changing climate. Other factors, not related to climate, may also cause a forest’s tree species to change.

 

In this study, the scientists were interested in a change they observed in a particular rainforest. This rainforest is located along the Pacific coast in southeastern Alaska (figure 1).

 

 

Map of North America highlighting Alaska
Figure 1. Yellow-cedar grows in the north Pacific coastal rainforest of southeastern Alaska. Map by Lindsay Gnann.

 

In this rainforest, about 70 percent of the yellow-cedar trees have died in the past 100 years (figures 2 and 3).

 

Mature Yellow Cedar trees

Figure 2. A mature yellow-cedar tree. Photo courtesy of Dr. Paul Hennon.

Dead Yellow Cedar trees

Figure 3. The light-colored tree boles show what is left of dead yellow-cedar trees in the West Chichagof-Yakobi Wilderness Area of coastal Alaska. Dead yellow-cedar trees can remain standing for 80 years after death. They can remain standing because of aromatic chemicals in their wood. These chemicals protect the wood from fungi. Photo courtesy of Dr. Paul Hennon.

The cause of yellow-cedar death was unknown for many years. The scientists in this study spent 20 years discovering the probable cause of yellow-cedar death. Like detectives, when the scientists solved one riddle, they moved to the next. The question the scientists hoped to answer was, “What is causing the death of yellow-cedar trees in the north Pacific coastal rainforest?”

 

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What Is Yellow-Cedar?

To Alaska Natives and all Alaskans, yellow-cedar is a culturally important tree. The wood and bark of yellow-cedar trees are used by Alaska Natives for constructing shelter, clothing, baskets, canoes, canoe paddles, and totem poles (figure 4). Yellow-cedar is resistant to insects and decay. Because of this resistance, yellow-cedar wood is used for many durable products and is important to Alaska’s economy. Yellow-cedar trees grow slowly and can live up to 1,000 years.

 

A handmade, yellow-cedar canoe
Figure 4. A handmade, yellow-cedar canoe made by Larry Bowers. Photo courtesy of Larry Bowers,
http://www.westcountrycanoes.com

Methods

In the late 1980s, a team of scientists observed the roots, boles, and crowns of yellow-cedar trees that were in various stages of dying. The scientists carefully observed the trees. The scientists found that in order of  occurrence, the symptoms of upcoming death were: (1) fine root death; (2) coarse root death; (3) attack of the weakened tree’s bole by insects, fungi, viruses, and other organisms; and (4) crown death (figure 5).

 

 

An illustration of disease spreading from the roots to the tree
Figure 5. Death of yellow-cedar trees seemed to start from the fine roots and move upward through the tree. (1) shows a tree’s fine roots and (2) shows a tree’s coarse roots. Illustration by Stephanie Pfeiffer.

 

The last leaves in the crown to die were the ones most distant from the tree’s bole. From these observations, the scientists concluded that a living organism, such as an insect, did not cause the trees’ death. The scientists concluded the deaths had a nonliving cause related to the fine roots. It would be unlikely for an insect to cause the fine roots to die. It was only after the fine and coarse roots had died that insects attacked the trees.

 

To determine the cause of death, the scientists divided their research into smaller studies. In each of these studies, scientists observed and measured a different abiotic (ā bī ä tik) factor. Abiotic means it is a nonliving factor. Examples of abiotic factors studied include the amount of water in the soil, soil temperature, soil chemistry, air temperature, amount of forest cover, and the state of the climate near the soil surface. The scientists spent nearly 20 years studying these different abiotic factors.

 

One of the abiotic factors studied was how well fine roots tolerated cold temperatures. It was difficult to study the roots because they were underground, so the scientists used a surrogate for the roots. The scientists measured the cold tolerance of leaves. They observed whether the tips of the leaves died following cold temperatures (figure 6). Cold tolerance is the degree to which leaves can live despite freezing temperatures. The scientists compared the cold tolerance of leaves of yellow-cedar with western-hemlock trees. Western-hemlock trees growing in the same area were not dying. If the yellow-cedar trees were less cold tolerant than western hemlock trees, the scientists had another clue about yellow-cedar tree death.

 

Illustration of leaves
Figure 6. The scientists measured the cold tolerance of leaves as a surrogate for the cold
tolerance of roots. Illustration by Stephanie Pfeiffer.

 

The scientists also simulated snow cover on young yellow-cedar trees (figure 7). They did this simulation because snow has an insulating effect on the ground. In cold climates, a blanket of snow keeps the ground warmer than it would be without the snow.

 

Illustration of the experiment on trees in pots
Figure 7. The scientists simulated snow cover around young yellow-cedar trees to measure the snow’s insulating effect on the ground and the yellow-cedar roots. What do you notice about the tree on the right? This tree did not have simulated snow cover. Illustration by Stephanie Pfeiffer

 

Adaptive Management in Your Life

Do you have a vegetable garden in your schoolyard? If you do not, pretend that you do. Your class has decided to use adaptive management to improve the garden. First, you must identify a problem and your objective. Let’s say that all of the vegetables in the garden are ready during the summer. This summertime harvest is a problem because your class observes a summer holiday.

The class objective is to produce vegetables that can be harvested during the school year. Your class does research in the media center. You identify four fall and winter vegetables and plant them in the garden. After 2 months, you observe and record the plants’ progress. One of the vegetables has not survived. Two additional winter vegetables are identified. These vegetables are planted,
and all vegetables are evaluated after another 6 weeks. After evaluating your results, your class does more research. What steps will you take next?

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Findings

The scientists discovered that when the soil temperature around a seedling dropped to less than -5 degrees Celsius (C), the fine roots were severely injured and the seedling died. The temperature dropped below this point when snow cover had melted enough so that it no longer provided protection from the cold. Later, the scientists discovered that when the temperature was less than -5 degrees C, fine roots of large, mature trees also died. This temperature was reached in shallow soils when no snow was on the ground.

 

The scientists also discovered that the yellow-cedar trees were dying on wet, poorly drained soils. When soils are wet, the fine roots tend to be shallow. These shallow roots are more likely to be affected by freezing temperatures when no snow is present.

 

The scientists compared the progression of yellow-cedar tree death with other studies of tree death. When the roots of trees are injured, they cannot provide the tree with water and nutrients, and the tree eventually dies.

 

The scientists concluded that snow cover that remains into the spring protects yellow-cedar roots from injury. As the climate warms, snow cover does not remain as long into
the spring. Although the climate is gradually warming, Alaskan spring temperatures may still drop to less than freezing. A lack of or reduced snow cover enables the soil to freeze, killing the fine roots near the soil surface.

 

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Discussion

The scientists’ research revealed some actions that managers can take to help yellow-cedar trees adapt under changing climate conditions. Yellow-cedar trees grow slowly. Without help from managers, the trees may be unable to reproduce in colder areas that still have enough spring snow cover. The scientists recommended that managers plant yellow-cedar seedlings in colder areas (figure 8).

This illustration is a model of the scientists’ yellow-cedar management recommendations.
Figure 8. Three zones for yellow-cedar were identified. This illustration is a model of the scientists’ yellow-cedar management recommendations. The scientists recommended that managers take action to help yellow-cedar move into a zone that will help them live into the future. Illustration by Stephanie Pfeiffer.

The scientists also recommended that yellow-cedar seedlings be planted in deeper, well-drained soils. Yellow-cedar trees need help to move into these two kinds of areas. Without help, the trees may not be able to move fast enough on their own to adapt to climate change.

You Are the Adaptive Manager!

Pretend you are the natural resource manager for these areas of yellow-cedar. You have just been told about the findings of this research. You want to use adaptive management in your practice. What are two things you would do next?

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The title, “Cedar Waxing or Waning?” comes from two sources. Waxing means getting larger and waning means getting smaller. The moon, except for its full and new moon phases, is always either waxing or waning. (Will the moon be waxing, waning, full, or new tonight?) The second source is the cedar waxwing (figure 9). The cedar waxwing is a migratory bird that eats fruit, particularly berries. In the winter, the bird migrates from Southern Canada to the Southern United States. The cedar waxwing can be found in the Northern United States all year.

 

Cedar waxwing
Figure 9. Cedar waxwing. Photo by Bill Thompson and courtesy of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

Adapted from Hennon, P.E.; D’Amore, D.V.; Schaberg, P.G.; Wittwer, D.T.; Shanley, C.S. 2012. Shifting climate, altered niche, and a dynamic conservation strategy for yellow-cedar in the North Pacific coastal rainforest. Bioscience. 62: 147- 158. http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/40035.

The cover of the Natural Inquirer journal for 'Scientific Models and Adaptive Management'. The image is a collage that includes a cluster of trees and a golden eagle.

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Standards addressed in this Article:

The Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) are a set of K-12 science education standards emphasizing inquiry-based learning, real-world applications, and integrating engineering practices, aiming to deepen understanding of science while promoting critical thinking and problem-solving skills.
  • ESS2.A-H1
    Earth’s systems, being dynamic and interacting, cause feedback effects that can increase or decrease the original changes.
  • ESS2.A-M2
    The planet’s systems interact over scales that range from microscopic to global in size, and they operate over fractions of a second to billions of years. These interactions have shaped Earth’s history and will determine its future.
  • ESS2.C-H1
    The abundance of liquid water on Earth’s surface and its unique combination of physical and chemical properties are central to the planet’s dynamics. These properties include water’s exceptional capacity to absorb, store, and release large amounts of energy, transmit Sunlight, expand upon freezing, dissolve and transport materials, and lower the viscosities and melting points of rocks.
  • ESS2.C-M1
    Water continually cycles among land, ocean, and atmosphere via transpiration, evaporation, condensation and crystallization, and precipitation, as well as downhill flows on land.
  • ESS2.D-H3
    Changes in the atmosphere due to human activity have increased carbon dioxide concentrations and thus affect climate.
  • ESS2.D-H4
    Current models predict that, although future regional climate changes will be complex and varied, average global temperatures will continue to rise. The outcomes predicted by global climate models strongly depend on the amounts of human-generated greenhouse gases added to the atmosphere each year and by the ways in which these gases are absorbed by the ocean and biosphere.
  • ESS2.D-M1
    Weather and climate are influenced by interactions involving Sunlight, the ocean, the atmosphere, ice, landforms, and living things. These interactions vary with latitude, altitude, and local and regional geography, all of which can affect oceanic and atmospheric flow patterns.
  • ESS2.E-H1
    The many dynamic and delicate feedbacks between the biosphere and other Earth systems cause a continual co-evolution of Earth’s surface and the life that exists on it.
  • ESS3.A-M1
    Humans depend on Earth’s land, ocean, atmosphere, and biosphere for many different resources. Minerals, fresh water, and biosphere resources are limited, and many are not renewable or replaceable over human lifetimes. These resources are distributed unevenly around the planet as a result of past geologic processes.
  • ESS3.C-H1
    The sustainability of human societies and the biodiversity that supports them requires responsible management of natural resources.
  • ESS3.C-H2
    Scientists and engineers can make major contributions by developing technologies that produce less pollution and waste and that preclude ecosystem degradation.
  • ESS3.C-M1
    Human activities have significantly altered the biosphere, sometimes damaging or destroying natural habitats and causing the extinction of other species. But changes to Earth’s environments can have different impacts (negative and positive) for different living things.
  • ESS3.C-M2
    Typically as human populations and per capita consumption of natural resources increase, so do the negative impacts on Earth unless the activities and technologies involved are engineered otherwise.
  • ESS3.D-H1
    Though the magnitudes of human impacts are greater than they have ever been, so too are human abilities to model, predict, and manage current and future impacts.
  • ESS3.D-H2
    Through computer simulations and other studies, important discoveries are still being made about how the ocean, the atmosphere, and the biosphere interact and are modified in response to human activities.
  • ESS3.D-M1
    Human activities, such as the release of greenhouse gases from burning fossil fuels, are major factors in the current rise in Earth’s mean surface temperature (global warming). Reducing the level of climate change and reducing human vulnerability to whatever climate changes do occur depend on the understanding of climate science, engineering capabilities, and other kinds of knowledge, such as understanding of human behavior, and on applying that knowledge wisely in decisions and activities.
  • ETS1.A-H2
    Humanity faces major global challenges today, such as the need for supplies of clean water and food or for energy sources that minimize pollution, which can be addressed through engineering. These global challenges also may have manifestations in local communities.
  • ETS1.B-H1
    When evaluating solutions it is important to take into account a range of constraints including cost, safety, reliability, and aesthetics and to consider social, cultural, and environmental impacts.
  • ETS1.B-H2
    Both physical models and computers can be used in various ways to aid in the engineering design process. Computers are useful for a variety of purposes, such as running simulations to test different ways of solving a problem or to see which one is most efficient or economical; and in making a persuasive presentation to a client about how a given design will meet his or her needs.
  • ETS1.B-M2
    There are systematic processes for evaluating solutions with respect to how well they meet criteria and constraints of a problem.
  • ETS1.B-M4
    Models of all kinds are important for testing solutions.
  • ETS1.C-H1
    Criteria may need to be broken down into simpler ones that can be approached systematically, and decisions about the priority of certain criteria over others (trade-offs) may be needed.
  • ETS1.C-M2
    The iterative process of testing the most promising solutions and modifying what is proposed on the basis of the test results leads to greater refinement and ultimately to an optimal solution.
  • LS1.A-H1
    Systems of specialized cells within organisms help them perform the essential functions of life.
  • LS1.A-H4
    Feedback mechanisms maintain a living system’s internal conditions within certain limits and mediate behaviors, allowing it to remain alive and functional even as external conditions change within some range. Feedback mechanisms can encourage (through positive feedback) or discourage (negative feedback) what is going on inside the living system.
  • LS1.A-M3
    In multicellular organisms, the body is a system of multiple interacting subsystems. These subsystems are groups of cells that work together to form tissues and organs that are specialized for particular body functions.
  • LS1.B-M4
    Genetic factors as well as local conditions affect the growth of the adult plant.
  • LS1.C-M1
    Plants, algae (including phytoplankton), and many microorganisms use the energy from light to make sugars (food) from carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and water through the process of photosynthesis, which also releases oxygen. These sugars can be used immediately or stored for growth or later use.
  • LS2.A-H1
    Ecosystems have carrying capacities, which are limits to the numbers of organisms and populations they can support. These limits result from such factors as the availability of living and nonliving resources and from challenges such as predation, competition, and disease. Organisms would have the capacity to produce populations of great size were it not for the fact that environments and resources are finite. This fundamental tension affects the abundance (number of individuals) of species in any given ecosystem.
  • LS2.A-M1
    Organisms, and populations of organisms, are dependent on their environmental interactions both with other living things and with nonliving factors.
  • LS2.A-M3
    Growth of organisms and population increases are limited by access to resources.
  • LS2.C-H1
    A complex set of interactions within an ecosystem can keep its numbers and types of organisms relatively constant over long periods of time under stable conditions. If a modest biological or physical disturbance to an ecosystem occurs, it may return to its more or less original status (i.e., the ecosystem is resilient), as opposed to becoming a very different ecosystem. Extreme fluctuations in conditions or the size of any population, however, can challenge the functioning of ecosystems in terms of resources and habitat availability.
  • LS2.C-H2
    Moreover, anthropogenic changes (induced by human activity) in the environment—including habitat destruction, pollution, introduction of invasive species, overexploitation, and climate change—can disrupt an ecosystem and threaten the survival of some species.
  • LS2.C-M1
    Ecosystems are dynamic in nature; their characteristics can vary over time. Disruptions to any physical or biological component of an ecosystem can lead to shifts in all its populations.
  • LS4.C-H4
    Changes in the physical environment, whether naturally occurring or human induced, have thus contributed to the expansion of some species, the emergence of new distinct species as populations diverge under different conditions, and the decline–and sometimes the extinction–of some species.
  • LS4.C-H5
    Species become extinct because they can no longer survive and reproduce in their altered environment. If members cannot adjust to change that is too fast or drastic, the opportunity for the species’ evolution is lost.
  • LS4.D-H1
    Biodiversity is increased by the formation of new species (speciation) and decreased by the loss of species (extinction).
  • LS4.D-H2
    Humans depend on the living world for the resources and other benefits provided by biodiversity. But human activity is also having adverse impacts on biodiversity through overpopulation, overexploitation, habitat destruction, pollution, introduction of invasive species, and climate change. Thus, sustaining biodiversity so that ecosystem functioning and productivity are maintained is essential to supporting and enhancing life on Earth. Sustaining biodiversity also aids humanity by preserving landscapes of recreational or inspirational value.
  • LS4.D-M1
    Changes in biodiversity can influence humans’ resources, such as food, energy, and medicines, as well as ecosystem services that humans rely on—for example, water purification and recycling.
The Common Core Standards are educational benchmarks in the United States that outline clear expectations for what students should know and be able to do in English language arts and mathematics from kindergarten through 12th grade, aiming to ensure consistency and coherence in education nationwide.
  • Cite specific textual evidence to support analysis of science and technical texts, attending to important distinctions the author makes and to any gaps or inconsistencies in the account.
  • By the end of grade 12, read and comprehend science/technical texts in the grades 11-CCR text complexity band independently and proficiently.
  • Determine the central ideas or conclusions of a text; summarize complex concepts, processes, or information presented in a text by paraphrasing them in simpler but still accurate terms.
  • Follow precisely a complex multistep procedure when carrying out experiments, taking measurements, or performing technical tasks; analyze the specific results based on explanations in the text.
  • Determine the meaning of symbols, key terms, and other domain-specific words and phrases as they are used in a specific scientific or technical context relevant to grades 11-12 texts and topics.
  • Analyze how the text structures information or ideas into categories or hierarchies, demonstrating understanding of the information or ideas.
  • Analyze the author's purpose in providing an explanation, describing a procedure, or discussing an experiment in a text, identifying important issues that remain unresolved.
  • Integrate and evaluate multiple sources of information presented in diverse formats and media (e.g., quantitative data, video, multimedia) in order to address a question or solve a problem.
  • Evaluate the hypotheses, data, analysis, and conclusions in a science or technical text, verifying the data when possible and corroborating or challenging conclusions with other sources of information.
  • Synthesize information from a range of sources (e.g., texts, experiments, simulations) into a coherent understanding of a process, phenomenon, or concept, resolving conflicting information when possible.
  • Cite specific textual evidence to support analysis of science and technical texts.
  • By the end of grade 8, read and comprehend science/technical texts in the grades 6-8 text complexity band independently and proficiently.
  • Determine the central ideas or conclusions of a text; provide an accurate summary of the text distinct from prior knowledge or opinions.
  • Follow precisely a multistep procedure when carrying out experiments, taking measurements, or performing technical tasks.
  • Determine the meaning of symbols, key terms, and other domain-specific words and phrases as they are used in a specific scientific or technical context relevant to grades 6-8 texts and topics.
  • Analyze the structure an author uses to organize a text, including how the major sections contribute to the whole and to an understanding of the topic.
  • Analyze the author's purpose in providing an explanation, describing a procedure, or discussing an experiment in a text.
  • Integrate quantitative or technical information expressed in words in a text with a version of that information expressed visually (e.g., in a flowchart, diagram, model, graph, or table).
  • Distinguish among facts, reasoned judgment based on research findings, and speculation in a text.
  • Compare and contrast the information gained from experiments, simulations, video, or multimedia sources with that gained from reading a text on the same topic.
  • Cite specific textual evidence to support analysis of science and technical texts, attending to the precise details of explanations or descriptions.
  • By the end of grade 10, read and comprehend science/technical texts in the grades 9-10 text complexity band independently and proficiently.
  • Determine the central ideas or conclusions of a text; trace the text's explanation or depiction of a complex process, phenomenon, or concept; provide an accurate summary of the text.
  • Follow precisely a complex multistep procedure when carrying out experiments, taking measurements, or performing technical tasks, attending to special cases or exceptions defined in the text.
  • Determine the meaning of symbols, key terms, and other domain-specific words and phrases as they are used in a specific scientific or technical context relevant to grades 9-10 texts and topics.
  • Analyze the structure of the relationships among concepts in a text, including relationships among key terms (e.g., force, friction, reaction force, energy).
  • Analyze the author's purpose in providing an explanation, describing a procedure, or discussing an experiment in a text, defining the question the author seeks to address.
  • Translate quantitative or technical information expressed in words in a text into visual form (e.g., a table or chart) and translate information expressed visually or mathematically (e.g., in an equation) into words.
  • Assess the extent to which the reasoning and evidence in a text support the author's claim or a recommendation for solving a scientific or technical problem.
  • Compare and contrast findings presented in a text to those from other sources (including their own experiments), noting when the findings support or contradict previous explanations or accounts.
Social Studies Standards are educational guidelines outlining the essential knowledge, skills, and concepts students should learn in subjects such as history, geography, civics, and economics, aiming to provide a comprehensive understanding of societal structures, historical events, and global perspectives.
  • People, Places, and Environments
  • Production, Distribution, and Consumption
  • Science, Technology, and Society
  • Time, Continuity, and Change

What Is a Natural Inquirer Journal?

Three Natural Inquirer journal covers with NI bee

 

A Natural Inquirer journal is a collection of 4-8 articles on a related science topic. Journals are written for a middle school audience, but they can also be adapted for both high school students and advanced upper elementary students. Some journals are particularly suited to high school students; you can find our grade level recommendations in the tags on the product page or by filtering journals by grade level.

Journals include:

  • Four to eight articles based on published, peer-reviewed research papers; the articles keep the research paper format (see more below) but are written in language students can understand.
  • A FACTivity for each article, which is an activity to complete after reading the article. The FACTivity helps reinforce major science concepts from the article. These activities are designed to be easy to implement, with few material requirements and options for adapting them for your audience or available resources. Some articles in a journal may have two FACTivities.
  • A short “Welcome to the journal” article about key background information and science concepts that unify the articles included in the journal
  • A glossary of new terms for each article and the introductory materials.
  • A list of related Natural Inquirer publications for each article as well as outside references.
  • Standards correlations, including Next Generation Science Standards, addressed in the articles and the FACTivities.

Journals may also include additional essays (called spotlights), other activities (like crossword puzzles or vocabulary challenges), and more.

 

A screenshot of the article resource tile for "A Flame Changer" showing the three different format option buttons.

Reading Modes

Journals are available in three different formats:

  • Hard copies can be ordered from the website and shipped, all free of charge.
  • PDF versions of the printed journal can be downloaded free on the website. The PDF version directly replicates the content and layout of the printed version. You can also download individual articles as pdfs.
  • The “Read Distraction Free” option allows the individual articles to open in their own window, without the rest of the website being visible. These articles can be found under the “Articles” tab. This version allows readers to scroll to particular sections of the article using the sidebar menu on the left side of the screen. This version also has interactive Reflection Sections and Number Crunches. Students can enter their answers, submit them, and then receive the correct answers to double-check their work. Submitted answers are not saved on the website and will disappear once the window is closed.

What's in a Natural Inquirer Article?

Here, we'll go into more detail about the parts of a Natural Inquirer article and give you some ideas about how they can be used.

  1. Meet the Scientists

    This section introduces the scientists (and others) who worked on the study. In their own words, they each share a memorable science experience, a favorite research project, or something they learned during the course of their education or research.

    Use this section to:

    • Introduce kids to the variety of people who work in science
    • Introduce kids to the variety of scientific fields and give brief descriptions of science-related jobs
    • Explore ways that people interact with science every day

    Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) applications:

    • Science and Engineering Practices
    • Crosscutting Concepts: Influence of Science, Engineering, and Technology on Society and the Natural World

    Note that specific standards for this particular journal are linked on this educator guide tab.

    Other resources:

    Many of the scientists and engineers featured in this section are also featured on our collector cards. Learn more about their work, how they got interested in their fields, and interesting projects they worked on. Cards can be printed as posters, too.

    A sample Meet the Scientists page, showing four different scientists

  2. Thinking About Science

    This section briefly describes a concept about science or scientific research. This overview can touch on topics like

    • study type (longitudinal study, quantitative vs. qualitative data),
    • behaviors of scientists (conducting literature reviews, collaborating with other specialists, replicating earlier studies),
    • the practice of science (the scientific method, engineering design, data collection, randomization, controls and variables),
    • or other aspects of science (bias, correlation vs. causation).

    Use this section to:

    • Reinforce steps in the scientific method and the process of science
    • Encourage students to think about the practice of science and what it can and cannot tell us
    • Consider the many types of scientific study and what information each type can provide

    Next Generation Science Standards applications:

    • Science and Engineering Practices
    • Life Science Disciplinary Core Ideas (depending on topic)
    • Most Crosscutting Concepts (depending on topic)

    Note that specific standards for this particular journal are linked on this educator guide tab.

    Other resources:

    You can use key words to search for other or related scientific topics on our website (e.g. “longitudinal study,” “bias,” or “sampling”).

    A sample Thinking About Science page from a recent monograph

  3. Thinking About the Environment

    This section provides a brief overview of a topic or concept in environmental/life science. The topic or concept is directly related to the research study that follows. Examples of topics include the carbon cycle, the water cycle, habitat fragmentation, phenology, biodiversity, and ecosystem services.

    Use this section to:

    • Provide important background information to help students understand the research study
    • Serve as a quick reference during reading or class instruction
    • Connect the research article with other activities or media on the same topic

    Next Generation Science Standards applications:

    • Life Science and some Earth Science Disciplinary Core Ideas (depending on topic)
    • Most Crosscutting Concepts (depending on topic)

    Note that specific standards for this particular journal are linked on this educator guide tab.

    Other resources:

    You can use key words to search for more resources on life or earth science topics on our website (e.g. “habitat,” “carbon,” or “genetics”).

    A sample "Thinking About the Environment" section from a recent monograph

  4. Introduction

    This section begins the scientific article format. Much like the published, peer-reviewed study this article is based on, the introduction provides background information for the study – what is currently known and what remains unknown. The introduction culminates in the question(s) the study hopes to answer.

    The introduction is also the first section with a Reflection Section. This section includes two or three questions to help kids reflect on what they’ve just learned in the Introduction. If they are using the online distraction-free reading mode, they can answer these questions directly on the website.

    Use this section to:

    • Review important background information that kids need to understand the study
    • Connect the study to the concepts addressed in the Thinking About Science and Thinking About the Environment sections
    • Understand research questions and hypotheses, including generating their own hypotheses given what they already know

    Next Generation Science Standards applications:

    • Life Science and some Earth Science Disciplinary Core Ideas (depending on topic)
    • Most Crosscutting Concepts (depending on topic)

    Note that specific standards for this particular journal are linked on this educator guide tab.

    Other resources:

    Use one of the guided reading lesson plans to help kids follow the format of a scientific paper.

    A sample introduction page from "Hidden in Plain Sight"

  5. Methods

    This section is the nuts and bolts of the study design – the who, what, when, where, why, and how of the research. Contained within the Methods section are usually maps of the study location or the set-up of study plots, as well as details about what data was collected and how.

    The Methods section also ends with a Reflection Section – two or three questions to help students think through what they just read. These questions are interactive on the distraction-free reading mode.

    Use this section to:

    • Show students how experiments and studies are designed and carried out
    • Explore sampling methods and randomization
    • Introduce various data collection tools (e.g. camera traps, surveys, insect collection tools, weather stations, etc.)
    • Explain bias and how studies are designed to remove bias
    • Help students gain experience with map reading

    Next Generation Science Standards applications:

    • Life Science and some Earth Science Disciplinary Core Ideas (depending on topic)
    • Most Crosscutting Concepts (depending on topic)

    Note that specific standards for this particular journal are linked on this educator guide tab.

    Other resources:

    Many Methods and Findings sections contain Number Crunches, which are simple math exercises designed to help students interact with the data from the study.

    A sample methods section of a monograph article showing a map

  6. Findings

    This section summarizes the data collected during the study. The Findings section usually includes data tables or graphs and highlights the significant data points from the study. This section often mentions statistical analysis or the use of computer programs to model or analyze the data, though these methods are only discussed generally.

    The Findings section also ends with a Reflection Section – two or three questions to help students think through what they just read. These questions are interactive on the distraction-free reading mode.

    Use this section to:

    • Have students practice reading and interpreting graphs and tables
    • Compare results between variables and controls
    • Explain the concept of statistical significance
    • Discuss how no data or negative results still provide valuable information

    Next Generation Science Standards applications:

    • Life Science and some Earth Science Disciplinary Core Ideas (depending on topic)
    • Most Crosscutting Concepts (depending on topic)

    Note that specific standards for this particular journal are linked on this educator guide tab.

    Other resources:

    Search the website for “map” or “graph” to find activities where students can practice making and reading maps and graphs.

    The beginning of a Findings section featuring a large data table

  7. Discussion

    This section concludes each article. In it, we summarize the main findings of the scientists’ study. Additionally, we present the scientists’ ideas about the limitations of their study, the big-picture impacts of their research, and the scientists’ plans for future study or action.

    The Discussion section ends with a Reflection Section – two or three questions to help students think through what they just read, especially general take-aways from the study. These questions are interactive on the distraction-free reading mode.

    Use this section to:

    • Discuss what conclusions can and cannot be drawn from the available data
    • Explain the difference between correlation and causation
    • Explore study limitations and opportunities for further study
    • Brainstorm ways the study findings could be applied to real-world situations

    Next Generation Science Standards applications:

    • Life Science and some Earth Science Disciplinary Core Ideas (depending on topic)
    • Most Crosscutting Concepts (depending on topic)

    Note that specific standards for this particular journal are linked on this educator guide tab.

    Other resources:

    Use the “Designing Your Own Study” resource page for videos of scientists discussing their own research studies. The page also includes educator resources to help students plan their own scientific studies.

    The beginning of the conclusion of "Hidden in Plain Sight"

Additional Resources on the Website

A screenshot of the product tabs for an NI monographOn the website, we pair each journal with a variety of other resources, as well. Use the tabs on the product page to browse through the following:

  • Related activities, including the FACTivity for each article
  • An “About” essay that gives some larger context for the research the scientists conducted or more information about the science topic from the journal
  • A glossary of all boldfaced terms from the journal
  • A “Scientists and Collaborators” page that lists the people involved in the studies in the journal; click on a researcher to reach their bio page and see what other articles they might be featured in
  • A “Related Content” page that lists both Natural Inquirer resources about similar topics and also outside reference materials

Article Selection and Review

Natural Inquirer partners with the USDA Forest Service, so we source research studies by Forest Service scientists that have been peer-reviewed and published in reputable journals. Some of our articles have also been created in collaboration with scientists from other Federal agencies, such as U.S. Geological Survey and the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, universities, and other non-profits.

All journal articles are reviewed by scientists who conducted the original research study to verify scientific accuracy. Journals are also reviewed by student editorial review boards of middle or high school students before publication. Additionally, all journals are reviewed by the Forest Service and the U.S. Department of Agriculture before publication.

A screenshot of the citation for "Lights, Camera, Tracks"Every journal article includes a citation of its source study. Many educators pair the original research paper with our article to help more advanced students learn how to read formal research papers. The journal article then serves as adapted primary literature, bridging the two articles.

Lessons

  • PDF preview of Scientific Models lesson plan.
    In this lesson, students will read and summarize four of the article’s sections. After the class reads the article and summarizes the sections, students should work in groups to create...

    Lesson Plan – Model Construction

    • Lesson Plan
    • Middle School
    • 2-3 Classroom Periods
    • Active Forest Management
    • Agriculture
    • Carbon
    • Citizen Science
    • Engineering and Forest Products
    • Fire
    • Insects
    • Pollinators
    • Pollution
    • Recreation
    • Social Science
    • Water
    • Wilderness
    • Wildlife
    • Graphic Organizer
    • Group Activity
    • Making a Model
    In this lesson, students will read and summarize four of the article’s sections. After the class reads the article and summarizes the sections, students should work in groups to create...
    • Explore Lesson Plan
    • Download Lesson Plan (PDF)
    • Explore Lesson Plan
    • Download Lesson Plan (PDF)

    Part Of

    Scientific Models in Adaptive Management - Vol. 17 No. 1
  • PDF Preview of the KWL Lesson Plan
    Students create a chart to write what they know before reading, what they think they will learn from the article, and then what they learned from the article. This lesson...

    Lesson Plan – K-W-L

    • Lesson Plan
    • High School
    • Middle School
    • 2-3 Classroom Periods
    • Active Forest Management
    • Agriculture
    • Carbon
    • Citizen Science
    • Engineering and Forest Products
    • Fire
    • Insects
    • Pollinators
    • Pollution
    • Recreation
    • Social Science
    • Water
    • Wilderness
    • Wildlife
    • Graphic Organizer
    Students create a chart to write what they know before reading, what they think they will learn from the article, and then what they learned from the article. This lesson...
    • Explore Lesson Plan
    • Download Lesson Plan (PDF)
    • Explore Lesson Plan
    • Download Lesson Plan (PDF)
  • PDF Preview of the Paragraph by Paragraph Lesson Plan
    Focus student understanding of the main idea of a paragraph in each section of a Natural Inquirer article through a reading and note-taking process. This lesson plan can be used with any...

    Lesson Plan – Paragraph by Paragraph

    • Lesson Plan
    • High School
    • Middle School
    • 2-3 Classroom Periods
    • Active Forest Management
    • Agriculture
    • Carbon
    • Citizen Science
    • Engineering and Forest Products
    • Fire
    • Insects
    • Pollinators
    • Pollution
    • Recreation
    • Social Science
    • Water
    • Wilderness
    • Wildlife
    • Graphic Organizer
    Focus student understanding of the main idea of a paragraph in each section of a Natural Inquirer article through a reading and note-taking process. This lesson plan can be used with any...
    • Explore Lesson Plan
    • Download Lesson Plan (PDF)
    • Explore Lesson Plan
    • Download Lesson Plan (PDF)

Education Files

Project Learning Tree

If you are a Project Learning Tree educator, you may use “Trees in Trouble” as an additional resource.

Glossary

View All Glossary

  • aromatic

    (a rə ma tik): Having a strong smell.

  • bole

    (bōl): Tree trunk.

  • coarse root

    (kȯrs rūt): The thicker root structure of a plant when compared with the finer roots.

  • crown

    (krau̇n): The highest part of the leaves and branches of a tree or shrub.

  • fine root

    (fīn rūt): A small, hair-like root growing out of a plant’s coarse roots.

  • forest cover

    (fȯr əst kə vər): The area of land covered by forest crowns.

  • iconic

    (ī kän ik): Of or pertaining to an icon. An icon is a picture representation, a symbol.

  • maladapted

    (ma lə dap təd): Poorly suited or unsuited.

  • novel

    (nä vəl): New and not resembling anything used or known before.

  • pristine

    (pri stēn): Not spoiled, corrupted, or polluted.

  • seedling

    (sēd liŋ): A young plant grown from a seed.

  • simulate

    (sim yǝ lāt): To make an imitation (or copy or model) by one system or process of the way in which another system or process works.

  • spatial

    (spā shəl): Of, relating to, or involved in the perception of relationships (as of objects) in space.

  • species

    (spē sēz or spē shēz): A category of living things that ranks below a genus, is made up of related individuals able to produce fertile offspring, and is identified by a two-part scientific name.

  • surrogate

    (sər ə gāt): (verb) Substitute; to put in the place of another.

  • totem pole

    (tō təm pȯl): A pole carved and painted with totems and set up by native Alaskan peoples. A totem is an honored symbol.

  • wilderness area

    (wil dər nəs er ē ə): An area in the United States designated by law for preservation and protection in its natural condition. A wilderness area also refers to a large unspoiled natural area.

  • Photo of Paul Hennon standing in a forest, wearing a yellow hard hat and holding a shovel.

    Paul Hennon

    Plant Pathologist

    My favorite science experience is working on a research team with scientists from different fields. Plus, my job takes me to so many remarkably beautiful, pristine, and remote places.  
    View Profile
  • Dr. David D'Amore standing in a forest

    David D’Amore

    Soil Scientist

    My favorite science experience was conducting bird surveys in the forest. I assisted the bird survey crew and had to get up before dawn, which meant 2 a.m. in Alaska....
    View Profile
  • Dr. Schaberg hiking in the snow

    Paul Schaberg

    Plant Physiologist

    My favorite science experience is getting an unexpected result to an experiment. Sure, it is great to develop a hypothesis and test it in an experiment. A hypothesis is an...
    View Profile
  • Photo of Dr. Dustin Wittwer using a measuring device in a forest.

    Dustin Wittwer

    Geospatial Analyst | Geospatial Services Specialist

    My favorite science experience is collecting and analyzing geographic data from the remote and wild locations of Alaska. I love testing and using new and innovative technology to collect geographic...
    View Profile
  • Photo of Dr. Colin Shanley skying down a snowy mountainside.

    Colin Shanley

    Geographic Information Systems Analyst

    My favorite science experience was spending the summer tracking mountain goats by foot in the Cascade Mountains of Washington and Oregon.  
    View Profile

Jump To

  • Related from Natural Inquirer
  • Additional Resources

Related Resources from the Natural Inquirer

  • Grow Where You're Planted Monograph cover.
    In “Grow Where You’re Planted,” students will learn about how different planting elevations can affect Jeffrey and ponderosa pines’ survival, growth, and bud development timing. As part of the Moon...

    Grow Where You’re Planted – Vol. 1 No. 24

    • Monograph
    • High School
    • Middle School
    • Active Forest Management
    • Apollo 14
    • Artemis I
    • Bud Development
    • Climate Change
    • Computer Model
    • Diameter at Breast Height (DBH)
    • Forest Restoration
    • Genotype
    • Jeffrey pine
    • Native Range
    • Phenotype
    • Ponderosa Pine
    • Seed Extractory
    • Seed Germination
    • Seeds
    • Smokejumper
    • Tree growth
    • Tree Survival Rates
    In “Grow Where You’re Planted,” students will learn about how different planting elevations can affect Jeffrey and ponderosa pines’ survival, growth, and bud development timing. As part of the Moon...
    • Explore Monograph
    • Download Monograph (PDF)
    • Explore Monograph
    • Download Monograph (PDF)
  • FACELook cover with illustration of leaves
    The scientists in this study conducted an experiment to see how much carbon is stored in a tree’s roots versus its leaves. The monograph explores the relationship between carbon, photosynthesis,...

    FACELook – Vol. 1 No. 1

    • Monograph
    • High School
    • Middle School
    • Carbon
    • Atmosphere
    • Carbon Cycle
    • Carbon Dioxide
    • Carbon Storage
    • Glucose
    • Photosynthesis
    • Respiration
    • Roots
    • Transpiration
    • Troposphere
    The scientists in this study conducted an experiment to see how much carbon is stored in a tree’s roots versus its leaves. The monograph explores the relationship between carbon, photosynthesis,...
    • Explore Monograph
    • Download Monograph (PDF)
    • Explore Monograph
    • Download Monograph (PDF)
  • The cover of "Moving on Up" featuring a black and white close-up picture of leaves
    The scientists in this study were interested in trees that live in the Eastern United States. They wanted to explore how the habitat of these trees might change in the...

    Moving on Up: The Possible Impact of Climate Change on Forest Habitats

    • Article
    • Middle School
    • 1 Classroom Period
    • Active Forest Management
    • Wilderness
    • Carbon Dioxide
    • Fossil Fuels
    • Habiat
    • Habitat Loss
    • Seed Dispersal
    • Trees
    • Trend
    The scientists in this study were interested in trees that live in the Eastern United States. They wanted to explore how the habitat of these trees might change in the...
    • Explore Article
    • Download Article (PDF)
    • Read Distraction Free
    • Explore Article
    • Download Article (PDF)
    • Read Distraction Free

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    Natural Inquirer - Vol. 14 No. 1
  • Cover of the North of the Border article. The cover is a close up shot of a nonnative plant species.
    A naturalized species has two ranges. The first range is the one where the species lives in its native habitat. The second range is the one where the species is...

    North of the Border: Are Nonnative Species Moving Northward As the Climate Changes?

    • Article
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    • 1 Classroom Period
    • Active Forest Management
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    • Invasive Species
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    A naturalized species has two ranges. The first range is the one where the species lives in its native habitat. The second range is the one where the species is...
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    • Download Article (PDF)
    • Explore Article
    • Download Article (PDF)

    Part Of

    Natural IQ - Vol. 1 No. 1

Additional Resources

  • USDA Forest Service: "Trees on the move: A scientific effort to adapt to climate change"

    When thinking of the term migration, the mind envisions seasonal bird journeys or perhaps historical human movement around the globe. However, scientists at the USDA Forest Service Northern Research Station are studying another type of migration—the movement of trees and how that relates to climate change.

    Read Article
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The Natural Inquirer program produces a variety of science education materials for PreK through grade 12. Natural Inquirer products are produced by the USDA Forest Service, FIND Outdoors, and other cooperators and partners.

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